Life and Thought of St. Thomas Aquinas: A Medieval Scholar
Life and Thought of St. Thomas Aquinas
Early Life and Education
Thomas Aquinas was born in 1224 in Roccasecca Castle, north of Naples. He attended college in Naples and later entered the Dominican Order. Returning to Italy, he dedicated himself to teaching in various cities, engaging in the ongoing debates between different schools of thought. He passed away in 1274 while attending the Council of Lyons convened by Pope Gregory X.
Aristotle’s Influence and Aquinas’s Writings
During the Middle Ages, various mendicant orders emerged, fostering dialogue within the Church. Among the prolific writers of this era, the Angelic Doctor, Thomas Aquinas, stands out. His notable works include Summa Against the Gentiles and Summa Theologica, which address disputed theological issues, including existence and essence.
The Medieval Context
St. Thomas lived at the end of the Middle Ages (476-15th century), a period marked by successive invasions from Northern Europe. Society was divided into three strata: the common people, the nobility, and the clergy. The common people supported the other two through agricultural labor, barely subsisting after paying rent and taxes. Vassal relationships existed between nobles and servants. Feudal lords frequently waged war, forcing peasants into military service. Famines and epidemics were rampant. Monasteries served as centers of social, economic, political, and cultural power.
Political and Cultural Landscape
Clashes between church and state were common, often resulting in agreements or alliances that benefited both parties. Thinkers like St. Augustine explored the relationship between church and state from philosophical and theological perspectives. The Middle Ages initially experienced a cultural decline. However, admiration for classical works persisted, and monasteries preserved these texts through translation and copying. Since the time of Charlemagne (8th century), monasteries often had schools led by Scholastics. These schools taught the seven liberal arts of the Trivium (grammar, logic, rhetoric) and the Quadrivium (geometry, arithmetic, music, astronomy), later adding theology, philosophy, and law.
The true cultural reawakening came with the rise of universities in the 12th century, notably in Paris, Bologna, Oxford, Cambridge, and Salamanca. Initially associations of teachers and students, these universities later received support from patrons, kings, and popes. Other factors contributing to the cultural resurgence included the emergence of mendicant orders (Dominicans and Franciscans), the rediscovery of Greek knowledge through Arabic scholarship, Gothic art, and the development of Romance languages.
Philosophical Context: Scholasticism
St. Thomas’s philosophical context was primarily Scholasticism. Scholastic thinkers accepted two types of knowledge: knowledge from faith and knowledge from reason and the senses. Reconciling these two formed the basis of much debate. Central themes in medieval thought included:
- The relationship between reason and faith
- The nature of universals
- The difference between essence and existence
- The relationship between God (creator) and humans (creatures)
Scholasticism encompassed various trends, including Platonic, Neoplatonic, Augustinian, Aristotelian, Arabic, Jewish, Christian, and mystical influences. Augustinian and Aristotelian thought were particularly influential on Aquinas. While initially a follower of St. Augustine, Aquinas differed in his emphasis on the “intellectual order” rather than the “order of the heart.” Aquinas built upon the work of Arab and Jewish translators and commentators of Aristotle (like Averroes and Maimonides). While largely assimilating Aristotelian thought, Aquinas also drew upon Platonic ideas, Church Fathers, Pseudo-Dionysius, and Boethius.