Liberalism’s Evolution & Durkheim’s Social Theories
Key Concepts in Liberalism and Sociology
Major Events Shaping Liberalism
- 1789: The French Revolution and the Ratification of the American Constitution.
- 1848: Revolutions across Europe, beginning in France, marking the end of Absolutism.
- 1859: J.S. Mill publishes On Liberty, establishing standards for the relationship between authority and individual freedom. Mill emphasized individuality as a prerequisite for higher pleasures and criticized past attempts to defend it, noting how democratic ideals could lead to the “tyranny of the majority.”
The Paradox of Liberalism and the Modern State
Liberalism’s triumph coincided with the rise of the modern state. For liberalism to flourish, it required the support of a centralized state. Both liberalism and the modern state shared a common adversary: regionalism and localism. A historical example is the numerous local taxes on goods, such as the 14 fish taxes from Calais to Paris, which hindered trade and national unity.
Three Economic Dimensions of Liberalism
- Moral Economy: Focuses on human relationships and interactions within a national economy.
- Political Economy: Examines how government policies and actions influence the national economy.
- International Economy: Deals with international trade, global economic relations, and terms of trade.
Durkheim’s Theories of Social Solidarity
The French social scientist Émile Durkheim, often considered the father of sociology, explored social cohesion in his 1893 work, The Division of Labour in Society. He proposed two main types of social solidarity:
Mechanical Solidarity: Pre-Modern Cohesion
Mechanical solidarity is characteristic of pre-modern, simpler societies, typically small, rural villages. These societies exhibit little division of labor and are more emotionally driven. Social cohesion stems from shared values and beliefs, forming a “collective conscience” that encourages cooperation among individuals.
- Basis: Resemblances, segmental types, clan, and territorial ties.
- Interdependence: Low, due to relatively weak social bonds and fewer people.
- Values: Primarily moral, less intense on materialistic values.
- Sanctions: Repressive, based on morals and sentiments rather than ethics.
- Authority: Collective authority (e.g., religion, family, social class) is absolute, dictating individual actions.
- Examples: Historically, many pre-industrial societies. Modern examples might include highly normative societies like Saudi Arabia, or certain nationalist movements seeking a return to traditional values. In some traditional regions, like parts of Southern Spain, strong family ties, religious belief, and a lack of individualism can be observed, where collective belonging often outweighs personal freedom.
- Disadvantage: Less individual freedom and independence.
- Advantage: Strong sense of belonging and security within a larger group.
Organic Solidarity: Modern Interdependence
Organic solidarity is typical of modern and postmodern societies, characterized by a greater division of labor and specialization. Individuals function like interdependent, differentiated organs of a living body, relying on each other’s services for societal function.
- Basis: Interdependence arising from specialization.
- Individualism: Allows for greater individual initiative and reflection.
- Sanctions: Restitutive, aiming for rehabilitation and reintegration into society (e.g., democratic states’ prison systems).
- Law: Prevalence of cooperative law (civil, commercial, procedural, administrative, and constitutional).
- Collective Conscience: Lower in volume, intensity, and determinateness, providing more room for individual autonomy.
- Values: Increasingly materialistic, with a growing secular, human-oriented ideology that values individual dignity, human rights, equality of opportunity, work ethic, and social justice.
- Population Density: High volume of population with high material and moral density.
- Modern State Role: Enables redistribution and social welfare.
Liberalism, Justice, and Human Nature
In societies influenced by liberal thought, the emphasis shifts from repressive punishment to rehabilitation within the justice system. Liberalism often posits that humans are inherently good, and justice is not about vendetta but about restoring balance and fostering societal well-being.