Liberalism, Nationalism, and the Revolutions of 19th-Century Europe
Liberalism and Nationalism
Liberalism
Originating from Enlightenment ideals that influenced both the American War of Independence and the French Revolution, liberalism emphasized individual freedoms and generally represented the interests of the bourgeoisie.
Key Principles:
- National sovereignty
- Constitutional monarchy as the preferred form of government
- Separation of powers
- Limited suffrage (restricted to male property owners)
- Freedom of association, expression, religion, and the press
Nationalism
Nationalism championed the right of people who identified as nations to establish their own independent states. Many nationalist movements arose from struggles against Napoleonic domination.
Key Principles:
- National sovereignty, with each nation choosing its preferred form of government
- Independent nation-states with clearly defined borders
- Nation-states comprised of people sharing a common history, language, and culture, fostering a well-integrated society
The Age of Revolution
Revolutions of the 1820s
Liberal revolutions aimed at establishing constitutional monarchies occurred in Portugal and Spain. Greece achieved independence from the Ottoman Empire through a combined liberal and nationalist revolution.
Revolutions of 1830
In France, a liberal revolution led to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy. Belgium’s nationalist revolution secured independence from the Netherlands, reversing the union imposed by the Congress of Vienna.
Revolutions of 1848
More radical revolutions erupted in France, the Austrian Empire, the German Confederation, and Italy. Demands for democratic reforms and political power came from both the middle classes and the proletariat. While most of these revolutions failed, France saw the proclamation of the Second Republic and the introduction of universal male suffrage.
Italian and German Unification
Italian Unification
Initiated by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia in 1859, the Italian unification process gained momentum with French support. King Victor Emmanuel II and Prime Minister Cavour successfully expelled Austria from Lombardy. With Garibaldi’s assistance, the Piedmontese gradually conquered and annexed the rest of the Italian peninsula, including Venetia and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Unified Italy became a constitutional monarchy under Victor Emmanuel II, with Rome as its capital in 1871.
German Unification
Orchestrated by Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, German unification began with a conflict against Denmark over Schleswig and Holstein. Prussia’s victory in 1864, followed by the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, solidified Prussian control in northern Germany. Despite French opposition, Prussia’s victory in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) resulted in the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine. Bismarck subsequently established the Second Reich (German Empire) under Kaiser Wilhelm I, completing the unification process.