Liberal Revolutions and the Spring of Peoples (1820-1848)
Liberal Revolutions (1820-1848)
Revolutions of 1820 and 1830
During the Restoration, liberals organized themselves in secret societies, such as the Masons, the Carbonari, and the Decembrists. These societies, formed by businessmen, students, and others who considered themselves heirs of the French Revolution and the Enlightenment, prepared for revolts against absolutism. They held significant influence in cities, hoping the populace would join an uprising.
The revolutions of 1820 ultimately failed, except in Spain, Naples, Portugal, and Piedmont. A second wave of revolutions in 1830, however, defeated the aristocracy. Starting in France, it led to the overthrow of the Bourbons and the introduction of a constitutional monarchy under Louis Philippe. This also resulted in the independence of Belgium. Absolutism disappeared, replaced by moderate liberalism. A moderate liberal elite emerged, marginalizing the lower bourgeoisie and working classes. These moderate liberals defended census suffrage and limited liberties.
The Third Wave of Revolutions: 1848
The year 1848 marked the end of the Restoration system. Causes included the inadequate reforms of 1830 and the social unrest created by capitalism. In Eastern Europe, except for Russia, it brought about the abolition of feudalism. New democratic ideals advocated for popular sovereignty and universal male suffrage, as opposed to census suffrage.
The revolution began in Paris in 1848. Louis Philippe restricted freedoms, leading to a movement that stormed the royal palace. The king was deposed, and a republic was proclaimed. A provisional government was formed, promoting political and social reforms. Elections were held with universal male suffrage, resulting in a moderate republican government. However, this government closed the national workshops and liquidated social reforms.
That same year, a clash between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat was crushed by the army. The bourgeoisie consolidated power in a liberal regime. In December, Napoleon III came to power, ending the Second Republic and initiating the Second Empire in 1851. This revolution swept through Europe. Austria became a constitutional monarchy, but Russia remained largely unchanged. 1848 marked a complete bourgeois revolution and ushered in the evolution of liberalism towards democracy.
The Spring of Peoples
The Revolution of 1848 was particularly significant in the Austrian Empire, where a minority Austrian power dominated various communities. A parallel resurgence of nationalist agitation, led by liberal nationalists, demanded accountability.
The 1848 revolution gave way to the “Spring of Peoples.” This movement began in Vienna and caused the fall of Metternich, the election of a Constituent Assembly, and the abdication of the emperor. In Lombardy, Italians demanded the withdrawal of the Austrians, and Venice declared a republic. Hungary proclaimed a republic and initiated a war with Austria.
These movements were ultimately defeated. The reforms introduced in the Austrian Empire were rolled back, and a moderate liberal system with census suffrage was restored, along with territorial unity. The empire became a dual monarchy, with Austria and Hungary united under Francisco Jose, a structure that persisted until the First World War.