Liberal Revolutions and Nationalism in 19th-Century Europe
Key Concepts of the 19th Century
Revolution: A collective expression of ideas by a group of people.
Liberalism: A physiological, economic, and political system derived from civil liberties, but it rejects collective freedom.
Declaration of Rights: A document outlining citizens’ rights.
Constitution: The fundamental, written or unwritten, form of governance for a sovereign state.
Nation: Citizens united by common laws, customs, history, ideology, and beliefs.
Nationalism: A social and political movement that elevates the nation as the sole benchmark in a political community.
Liberal Revolutions
During the Restoration, liberals went underground, organizing into secret societies like the Masons. In 1820, revolutionary strategies led to initial failures but also victories in Spain, Portugal, Naples, and Piedmont.
The 1830 revolution in France overthrew the Bourbons, establishing a constitutional monarchy under Louis Philippe d’Orleans. This influenced events beyond France, including Belgium’s independence. By the late 1830s, absolutism was disappearing in Western Europe, replaced by moderate liberalism, which defended census suffrage and limited freedoms.
Democratic Shift in 1848
A new revolution in 1848 definitively ended the Restoration system. Causes included insufficient reforms and deteriorating conditions for craftsmen and workers. In Eastern Europe, it involved the abolition of feudalism. In Western Europe, it opened doors to new democratic ideals, advocating popular sovereignty and universal male suffrage.
Formation of Nation-States
The formation of nation-states began with unitary states in the 16th and 17th centuries. Liberal revolutions stimulated the concept of the nation, defined by shared history, language, culture, and a collective will to live under common laws.
Early Nationalist Movements
The European map defined at the Congress of Vienna (1815) included states, empires, and cultural communities. Early nationalist revolts, like Greece’s liberal insurrection against the Ottoman Empire in 1820, aimed for independence.
The Springtime of the Peoples (1848)
The 1848 revolution had a significant nationalistic component, particularly within the Austrian Empire, where an absolutist Austrian minority dominated other communities.
The Girondin Convention
The Girondin-led government adopted moderate positions. However, they faced problems with the more radical Jacobins. The first major issue was the fate of King Louis XVI. The Girondins initially opposed his trial, but Jacobin pressure and popular demand led to his conviction and execution on January 21, 1793. Marie Antoinette was executed some months later. The execution accentuated divisions and spurred a European anti-revolutionary coalition.
Unification of Germany
From the late 18th century, German nationalism was shaped by philosophers like Herder and Fichte, reinforced by Romanticism. The Congress of Vienna established the German Confederation, uniting 39 states, including Prussia and the Austrian Empire. The creation of the Zollverein (customs union) was a step towards unification, with Prussia leading the process. Military victories culminated in the proclamation of the Second Reich and William I as Emperor in 1871. Unification left unresolved the issues of religious differences between the North and South and the integration of non-Germans from Austria, frustrating the attainment of a “Greater Germany”.