Lexicon Fundamentals: Word Origins, Formation, and Meaning
Understanding the Lexicon
The lexicon of a language is constantly evolving, influenced by historical events, cultural exchanges, and the inherent need for new expressions. This document explores various aspects of lexical development and semantic concepts.
Word Origins and Influences
Heritage Words (Patrimonial Words)
These are words that have been part of the language since its origins, evolving naturally from Latin after its imposition on the Iberian Peninsula. Examples: Nocte > noite > night; Lacto > leite > milk.
Learned Words (Cultismos)
These words entered the language later (from the 15th century onwards) through cultured channels, such as literary or academic texts.
Doublets (Dobleteros)
Doublets are pairs of words consisting of a heritage term and a learned term, both originating from the same Latin root. Examples: fragile (learned) / frail (heritage); plano (learned) / llano (heritage).
Pre-Roman Substratum
These are linguistic elements present in the Iberian Peninsula before the Roman invasion (218 BC). Influences came from peoples like the Iberians, Celts, Basques, and Phoenicians. Examples: words like celt or poplar (from pre-Roman roots).
Germanisms
Words introduced by Germanic peoples who invaded the Iberian Peninsula after the fall of the Roman Empire. Examples: white, suburb.
Arabisms
These represent the largest lexical contribution to the language after Latin, introduced during the Moorish presence in the Iberian Peninsula. Examples: sorrel, lieutenant, Alhambra.
Gallicisms
Many French words entered during the Middle Ages, often brought by the clergy of Cluny and pilgrims of relics. Examples: cypress, young man.
Italianisms
A significant influence of Italian culture and literature during the Renaissance introduced many words. Examples: stay, novel.
Lusisms
Terms borrowed from the Portuguese language. Examples: cliff, screen.
Americanisms
Words originating from Amerindian languages spoken in America at the time of its discovery. Examples: sweet potato, potato.
Anglicisms
Terms borrowed from the English language. Examples: club, film.
Lexicon Renewal: Factors and Procedures
The lexicon undergoes constant renewal due to several factors:
- The need to create new words for new objects or concepts (e.g., internet).
- The desire for greater expressiveness, aiming for more precise and personal language.
Procedures for Lexicon Renewal
Derivation
New words are created by adding affixes (prefixes or suffixes) to a primitive word. Examples: tele-vision (from vision), salty (from salt).
Composition
Words are created by joining two or more existing words. Examples: sunflower, blackboard.
Parasynonymy (Parasíntesis)
This procedure combines both derivation and composition, where a word is formed by simultaneously adding a prefix and a suffix to a root, and the word cannot exist without both. Examples: enlarge, unforgettable.
Loans (Loanwords)
Words taken from another language and incorporated into the borrowing language.
Foreignisms
A general term for all words originating from another language.
Barbarisms
A foreign word that has not been fully incorporated or adapted into the borrowing language, often considered incorrect usage.
Semantic Concepts
Denotation
The objective meaning of a word, shared by all speakers, which remains stable over time.
Connotation
The subjective meanings of words, which can vary based on individual experience and interpretation.
Polysemy
A word having multiple related meanings. Example: the word bank (river bank, financial institution).
Homonymy
Two or more words that are pronounced or spelled the same but have different meanings.
Homophones
Words that sound the same but have different spellings and meanings. Example: to / two / too.
Homographs
Words that are spelled the same but may have different pronunciations and meanings. Example: read (present tense) / read (past tense); bow (weapon) / bow (to bend).
Synonyms
Words that share the same or very similar denotative meaning, though they may have different connotations or usage contexts. Examples: calendar / almanac; donkey / ass.
Antonyms
Words that express opposite concepts. Examples: sell / buy; give / take.
Metaphor
A figure of speech where a word or phrase is applied to an object or action to which it is not literally applicable, suggesting a similarity. Example: neck of a bottle.
Metonymy
A figure of speech where a concept is referred to by the name of something closely associated with it, often due to spatial proximity. Example: the Crown (referring to royalty); neck of a shirt.
Popular Etymology
The process by which a word’s form is altered to resemble a more familiar word or phrase, often based on perceived phonetic similarity. Examples: mandarin (from *mandarin orange*); gridiron (from *griddle*).
Ellipsis (Lexical Shortening)
When two words frequently appear together, one may eventually be omitted while its meaning is still implied by the other. Example: sports car (shortened from sports automobile).
Taboo Words
Words referring to realities considered unpleasant, offensive, or unpronounceable in certain social contexts. Example: ass.
Dysphemisms
Words or phrases used to make something sound worse or more unpleasant, often the opposite of euphemisms. Examples: potbelly (for a large stomach); nutcase (for someone mentally ill); pig (for a police officer).