Lexicology and Lexicography: Principles and Tools
Lexicology vs. Lexicography: Theory and Practice
While both terms share the Greek root lexiko (meaning ‘word’ or ‘way of speaking’), they represent different approaches to language. Lexicology is a theoretical discipline that studies the structure, meaning, and formation processes of words. In contrast, Lexicography is a practical discipline focused on collecting, exploring, and describing lexical units within dictionaries and other tools. Essentially, lexicography acts as applied lexicology, using theoretical foundations to solve real-world communication problems.
A lexical unit is a single word or combination of words that function together as a single unit of meaning (e.g., book, happy, safe and sound).
The Five Primary Lexicographic Tools
- Dictionaries: These are the primary reference books for information on orthography, pronunciation, signification, usage, synonyms, and history. Originally, English dictionaries were merely glossaries—lists of difficult Latin or foreign words with English equivalents.
- Glossaries: Alphabetical lists of terms with their definitions or brief explanations. They are typically placed at the end of books and include specialized vocabulary from a specific field.
- Encyclopaedias: They offer extensive and comprehensive information about extralinguistic topics of human knowledge. They typically consist of several books and include a subject index that introduces the encyclopaedia. They also include graphic resources, and they only cover nouns.
- Encyclopaedic Dictionaries: Reference books that offer in-depth explanations of concepts arranged alphabetically. They often incorporate images and deal with all kinds of word classes.
- Linguistic Corpora: Compilations or collections of texts (written or transcribed) that can be used to explore words in their real context. These are the main source of data in lexicography.
Historical Evolution: Prescriptive vs. Descriptive
The development of modern dictionaries was shaped by two monumental figures in the 18th and 19th centuries:
- Samuel Johnson: His 1755 Dictionary of the English Language was primarily prescriptive. Johnson sought to “fix” and standardize the language to prevent it from decaying, using quotations from the “best writers” to illustrate meaning and history.
- Noah Webster: His 1828 An American Dictionary of the English Language took a descriptive and synchronic approach. Webster described words based on actual usage examples, making his work highly influential in American English.
Critical and Effective Usage of Reference Tools
To use these tools effectively, a user must move beyond simply looking up a word and instead approach them critically. This involves three key decisions:
- Identifying exactly what information is needed (e.g., spelling, senses, or translation).
- Understanding the specific type of information each tool offers.
- Knowing how the tool works to find data accurately and quickly.
Often, solving a complex linguistic problem requires combining tools. For example, to fully understand a verb like “realize,” a learner might need to check a bilingual dictionary for translation, a monolingual dictionary for various senses, and a corpus to see how the meaning changes depending on the context.
Unit 2: Dictionary Structures and Conventions
Contemporary dictionaries are far more than mere books of definitions; they are descriptive, competitive commercial products designed to meet the specific needs of various consumers. According to the sources, their complexity is organized through specific linguistic conventions and four primary structural levels.
- Megastructure: This refers to the global physical organization of the dictionary. It includes the lemma list (the main body of words) and the sections surrounding it, known as front matter (preface, user guides, abbreviations) and back matter (irregular verbs, conversion tables, bibliography). The front and the back matter offer explanations about the dictionary and its correct use. They also contain publishing information.
- Macrostructure: This level concerns how words are ordered within the main body. It can be alphabetical (onomasiological), which focuses on the form of the word, or thematic (semasiological), which groups words by meaning, such as in a thesaurus. While general dictionaries use strict alphabetical order, learner dictionaries may use “niches” or “nests” to group morphologically related words together.
- Mesostructure: Also known as the cross-reference structure, this includes indicators that guide users from one entry to another or to different sections. These can be language-based directives (e.g., “see also”) or visual symbols like arrows (→). In online dictionaries, this structure is typically managed through hyperlinks.
- Microstructure: This is the internal structure of an individual entry. It contains formal data (spelling, pronunciation, grammar), semantic data (definitions, synonyms), and pragmatic data (register, dialectal variants). Entries may follow condensed, expanded, or illustrated formats.
Lexicographic Language and Condensation
Because dictionaries must pack vast amounts of information into limited space, they rely on textual condensation. The sources highlight three primary strategies for this:
- Structure indicators: Using boldface or brackets to make the entry structure evident.
- Symbols: Using hyphens or tildes to replace text and avoid repetitive printing.
- Standardized abbreviations: Using shortened forms like n. for noun or adj. for adjective to maximize space.
Classification of Dictionaries
Dictionaries are classified based on several criteria to serve different purposes:
- Number of languages: They can be monolingual, bilingual, or multilingual.
- Target user: Dictionaries are tailored for general users, language learners, or professionals who require technical jargon and terminology (e.g., medical or legal dictionaries).
- Temporal span: Synchronic dictionaries focus on contemporary language, whereas diachronic dictionaries (historical or etymological) track how words have changed over time. Most modern synchronic dictionaries still include some etymological notes.
To better understand these structures, you can think of a dictionary as a large library: the megastructure is the building itself, including the lobby and the index; the macrostructure is the way the bookshelves are arranged (alphabetically or by genre); the mesostructure represents the signs and arrows pointing you to different rooms; and the microstructure is the detailed information found on the inside cover of every individual book.