Lexical Relations: Polysemy, Homonymy, Synonymy, and Antonymy
Unit 3: Lexical Relations: Polysemy, Homonymy, Synonymy, and Antonymy
Types of Ambiguity
Ambiguity is a linguistic condition that can arise in various ways:
1. Phonetic
Example: “A near” / “An ear”. Homonymous words that can be confused due to similar pronunciation.
2. Grammatical
Example: “Free and bound forms” (desirable / retainable). Same ending but different meanings. Prefixes and suffixes can also have multiple meanings (e.g., “in”: into, within, upon).
Equivocated phrasing (amphibology): Individual words may be ambiguous, but their combination can be interpreted in multiple ways. Example: “I met a number of old friends and acquaintances”. “Old” can refer to both friends and acquaintances.
3. Lexical Factors
Polyvalency of words takes two forms:
- Polysemy: The same word has multiple meanings. Example: “Board” (a plank, a table).
- Homonymy: Two or more words have identical sounds. Example: “Mean” (middle or inferior), “Seal” (animal or wax).
Polysemy: Sources
Polysemy originates from various factors:
1. Shifts in Application
Words acquire different meanings based on context. Adjectives are particularly susceptible to this, changing meaning depending on what they qualify. Example: “Handsome” (person, actions, speech, etc.).
2. Specialization in a Social Milieu
Words develop specialized meanings in specific contexts. Example: “Action” (legal action, military operation), “Paper” (material, document, newspaper).
3. Figurative Language
Words can acquire figurative meanings without losing their original sense. Metaphor and metonymy contribute to polysemy. Example: “Eye” (metaphorical uses), “Bed of river” (applied to abstract phenomena).
4. Homonyms Reinterpreted
When two words sound identical but have slightly different meanings, they may be regarded as one word with multiple senses. This is rare, and examples are questionable.
5. Foreign Influence
One language can influence another, changing the meaning of existing words. Example: French “Parlament” (judicial court) from “parler” (speaking).
Safeguards and Conflicts
Polysemy is not a language defect but a condition of its efficiency. It provides economy and flexibility.
Context plays a crucial role in mitigating the consequences of polysemy. Additionally, specific safeguards help differentiate meanings:
1. Grammatical Order
Example: “DER SEE” (lake), “DIE SEE” (sea) in German.
2. Inflexion
Example: Inflexions can mark distinctions in meaning.
3. Word Order
Example: Word order can help discriminate between senses of the same term.
4. Adding Another Term
Example: “Fair” has different senses in “fair-sized”, “fair-minded”, “fair-haired”.
5. Slight Modifications in Form
Example: Phonetic, graphic, or phonetic and graphic modifications can clarify meaning.
Polysemy can lead to genuine ambiguity when all these safeguards fail. This ambiguity arises in three situations:
- Semantic borrowing: Words borrowed from foreign languages may cause confusion. Example: French “realiser” (traditional meaning: to carry out, Anglicism: to understand).
- Scientific and technical usage: Even with precise definitions, scholars may define terms differently. Example: Psychologists, existentialism.
- Ordinary language: Words may develop multiple senses that can arise in the same contexts. Example: “Admirable” (positive or negative depending on context), “Peevish” (silly, mad, horrible).
Another type of conflict occurs when a word develops an unpleasant sense, making it unusable in its older meaning. Example: “Common”, “strange”, “funny” in present-day English.