Latin Literature: A Journey Through the Post-Classical and Late Eras
1.5 Post-Classical Era
First Period: 1st Century AD
During this century, the Roman Empire stabilized its borders and experienced a period of relative peace. However, the death of Nero in 68 AD led to a change in dynasty and a brief period of instability. Culturally, the empire was bilingual, with Latin spoken in the western part and Greek in the east. Urbanization accelerated, fostering intercommunication and a universal culture. The period witnessed the emergence of prominent writers from outside Italy, reflecting the empire’s increasing ethnic diversity.
This era, known as the Silver Age, followed the Golden Age of Latin literature and exhibited two main trends:
- Continuity, based on the imitation of classical models.
- Rupture, seeking new forms of expression, often falling into the baroque style.
Satirical literature became predominant, and the influence of philosophical currents, particularly Stoicism, was evident in many works.
L. Annaeus Seneca (1-65 AD)
Seneca, a prominent Stoic philosopher, wrote dialogues on various topics, including On Anger, On Providence, On the Shortness of Life, On the Happy Life, and On Tranquility of Mind. He also composed Moral Epistles, a collection of letters addressed to Lucilius, and explored scientific subjects in Naturales Quaestiones. Additionally, Seneca wrote tragedies such as Medea, Phaedra, Agamemnon, Thyestes, and Hercules Furens.
Petronius Arbiter
Petronius, believed to be the arbiter of elegance at Nero’s court, authored the satirical novel Satyricon, which narrates the adventures of three rogues in southern Italy.
M. Valerius Martialis (45-104 AD)
Martial wrote twelve books of epigrams and three books of satirical poems on diverse subjects. His witty and sharp epigrams, following the tradition of Catullus, have had a lasting influence on literature throughout history.
Second Period: 2nd Century AD
The Antonine dynasty ruled during this century, marking the peak of Roman territorial expansion and the last period of true greatness. Literature reflected this prosperity, especially in the first half of the century under Trajan and Hadrian. This period saw the final resurgence of classicism, exemplified by the historian Tacitus, the satirical poet Juvenal, and the orator Pliny the Younger. However, the second half of the century showed signs of decline, with notable writers like Suetonius and Apuleius.
Christian literature also emerged, using Latin to defend their religion and challenge paganism (Tertullian).
P. Cornelius Tacitus (55-120 AD)
Tacitus initially wrote Dialogus de oratoribus, a dialogue about oratory. He then produced Agricola, a biography of his father-in-law, and Germania, a geographical and ethnographic monograph. His most significant works were two historical accounts: Historiae, covering the Flavian period in 14 books, and Annales, spanning 16 books. While maintaining the traditional structure, Tacitus’s personal style and critical perspective make him one of the most original and modern Roman historians.
Juvenal (55-135 AD)
Juvenal dedicated himself to satirical literature. His Satires, comprising 16 poems divided into 5 books, address various social and moral issues with wit and virulence, making him the quintessential representative of Roman satire.
Pliny the Younger (61-113 AD)
Pliny the Younger wrote a panegyric praising Emperor Trajan and several books of Letters. These letters, intended for publication, established him as the true creator of the epistolary genre.
Apuleius (125-180 AD)
Apuleius’s most famous work is the novel Metamorphoses or The Golden Ass, which tells the story of a man transformed into a donkey through magic and his eventual return to human form thanks to the goddess Isis.
1.6 Late Era: 3rd and 4th Centuries AD
From the 3rd century onwards, Roman literature experienced a decline. Authors like Florus (3rd century) and Eutropius (4th century) produced summaries of Livy’s work, while Ammianus Marcellinus (4th century) continued the tradition of Tacitus. In prose, Ausonius (4th century) and Claudian (4th century) stood out. These centuries also witnessed the rise of Christian literature, with early apologists known as the Church Fathers. Among Christian poets, Prudentius (4th century) of Hispanic origin deserves mention.
After the Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Latin literature continued to flourish thanks to exceptional figures like Boethius (475-524), known for his Consolation of Philosophy, and Isidore of Seville (570-636), author of the Etymologies. However, the fall of the empire marked a significant turning point. Literature primarily survived through the efforts of monks who preserved texts on vellum. Their dedication ensured that the legacy of Latin literature endured, serving as the foundation for medieval Latin literature and the Romance languages.