Late Antique World: Christian Art and Architecture (2nd-6th Century AD)
Late Antique World: 2nd-6th Century AD
The period covering the second and third centuries AD in the Mediterranean world saw Imperial Rome host the first Christian civilizations. The epistles of Paul the Apostle, initially addressed to Judaism, contributed to the universalization of Christian doctrine. The most important sources are the Gospel of St. Mark and the Acts of the Apostles. Before the fourth century, formal liturgical books did not exist.
In 313 AD, the Edict of Milan granted freedom of worship. Constantine (306-337 AD) supported the Christian religion throughout his lands, granting the Church economic privileges. He appointed himself Vicar of God in the fourth century and chose Byzantium as a new imperial capital in 330 AD, renaming it Constantinople. Julian’s (360-363 AD) attempt to restore pagan religious practices was short-lived. Theodosius (379-395 AD) made Christianity the official religion, forbidding pagan cults in 431 AD. The fifth century AD saw the Council of Ephesus (Asia Minor) define the divine nature of the Virgin Mary, a doctrine accepted by all churches. 476 AD marks the end of the Western Roman Empire, leaving unstable kingdoms to divide the West. Emperor Justinian, concerned about the capital, moved it to Ravenna in the early sixth century.
General Features of Christian Art
- Lack of Resources: Early Christians lacked the resources and economic means to build large structures. Initially, meetings took place in private homes due to persecution.
- Iconography and Classical Art: Christian art, while distinct, was closely related to classical art, differing primarily in its symbolic elements. Early Christian art was deeply rooted in this ancient culture.
- Patronage: Christian art was linked to wealth and political power. Major construction programs were undertaken in Constantinople, Rome, and Palestine.
Official Characteristics
- Large-Scale Art: Luxurious materials were used in large-scale works, including portals and capitals, reflecting classical styles.
- Reused Materials: Existing materials were reused, resulting in a labor-intensive process. This eclectic aesthetic mixed various forms and materials. The chrismon, Christ’s monogram (the Greek letters XP), appeared.
- Building Programs: Large monasteries, cathedrals, baptisteries, and episcopal churches were built.
- Funerary Basilicas: Before Constantine, significant programs were linked to pagan funerary basilicas.
- Classical Forms: Early Christian meeting spaces adopted classical architectural forms.
- Post-Constantine Architecture: After 313 AD, architectural programs began to draw inspiration from Bajorromana styles.
Early Christian Architecture Before Constantine
Chronology: 1st-4th Century AD
A) 50-150 AD: Community meetings were held in reused buildings with classical configurations. Eucharistic rites were performed in homes. Generally, these rites took place in second-floor dining rooms around a mensa (altar) and three couches. A presiding person and disciples participated. Only baptized individuals were admitted to partake in the bread. Baptisms were performed in tanks, containers, wells, or rivers.
B) 150-250 AD: The growing number of Christians necessitated larger spaces. Hierarchical structures emerged, leading to conflicts between bishops and church officials. This favored the construction of dedicated buildings rather than clandestine meetings. The liturgy became more complex, with two types of Mass: Mass of the Catechumens (for the unbaptized) and Mass of the Faithful (for the baptized). The latter involved sacrificial offerings, culminating in consecration and confirmation. This led to a physical separation of catechumens and the faithful. Key elements included the solium or tribunal, altars, and the bishop’s cathedra. Penitents were located at the threshold of the catechumen area (the hall or porch). These buildings were called Titulus or Domus Ecclesiae, often marked with a plaque bearing the owner’s name.
Examples include: Dura Europos (293 AD), Catacomb of Callixtus (Rome), St. Prisca (3rd century), and Triclia of San Sebastiano (Rome, 258 AD).
Basilica of St. John Lateran, Rome: This Constantinian basilica features a canonical layout (repeated elements), with the apse facing west due to topographical reasons (eastward orientation was the norm). Its exceptional size accommodated thousands of pilgrims and around 200 clergy. The sanctuary area was highly developed, with a later addition of a transept. The five-aisle basilica had semicircular apses. It also had a triple entry in the central part, separated by horizontal supports and covered with a double-apex wooden roof. Lateral aisles were covered with terraced roofs. The semicircular apse with a dome-shaped sky area represented Christ. The basilica’s decoration, with bright colors and marble, aimed to captivate the faithful.
Baptistery of Constantine, Rome (5th Century): Baptism was initially performed by immersion. Over time, it transitioned to sprinkling. This free-standing building, linked to the complex of the Cathedral of Rome, has a polygonal, octagonal plan and was constructed of brick and reused materials. Interior columns were monolithic, with composite Ionic capitals and pilasters. An octagonal, domed space housed the baptismal pool, surrounded by a corridor. Imperial red marble was used.
St. Peter’s Basilica, Rome (ca. 400 AD): In 323 AD, Constantine commissioned the construction of St. Peter’s Basilica on the site of the apostle’s martyrdom and burial. Built partly on the Circus’s surface, it became a widely imitated model. (Its appearance is known through paintings and drawings; it was later transformed by Bramante from 1506). The church had five aisles, with the central nave reaching almost 20 meters wide and 100 meters long, lit by windows. Columns separated the nave and aisles, while arches separated the side aisles. The wide transept was the same height as the nave, overhanging the side aisles. St. Peter’s tomb was located in this transept, under a canopy. The apse housed bishops and priests during ceremonies. The basilica had a simple wooden roof. A wide arcaded atrium served as a transition between the exterior and interior. Five doors opened into the nave and transepts. A central fountain in the atrium was covered by a canopy. A staircase provided access to the atrium, a gallery, and a tall tower on the right and a lower, square tower on the left. Imperial funds financed the construction. Built over the Apostle Peter’s grave, it served as both a church and a martyrium (a space containing the graves of important figures). The basilica featured five naves, a square courtyard with a central fountain (similar to a mosque), a nave with a prominent transept, and a narthex (porch), higher and with a gable roof.
Basilicas and Round Structures: Anastasis on Golgotha, Jerusalem (336 AD), Holy Sepulchre; Sessorian Basilica (329 AD), Jerusalem; Native Church (333 AD); Constantine’s Church in Bethlehem; Mausoleum (Rome, 350 AD).