Laboratory Safety, Biohazard Management, and Chemical Handling

Posted on Oct 29, 2025 in Other university degrees and diplomas

Biosafety and Biosecurity Definitions

Laboratory biosafety is the term used to describe the containment principles, technologies, and practices that are implemented to prevent unintentional exposure to pathogens and toxins, or their accidental release.

Laboratory biosecurity describes the protection, control, and accountability for valuable biological materials within laboratories, in order to prevent their unauthorized access, loss, theft, misuse, diversion, or intentional release.

Biohazardous Waste Types and Disposal Procedures

A. Medical Waste

1. Solid Biohazardous Waste

Solid biohazardous waste consists of non-sharp items that came in contact with human or animal specimen materials, such as tissues or body fluids.

Disposal Procedures

Solid biohazardous waste can be decontaminated on site through autoclave and disposed of as regular medical waste through an approved landfill. If it is not decontaminated, it must be collected by your laboratory for proper decontamination and disposal.

2. Liquid Biohazardous Waste

Liquid biohazardous waste consists mainly of blood and body fluids that could be contaminated with infectious agents.

Disposal Procedures

Most liquid waste can be disposed of by either chemical treatment with bleach or autoclave on the liquid cycle. If the liquids contain a mixture of body fluid and chemical waste, contact your medical waste removal provider for disposal recommendations.

3. Sharp Biohazardous Waste

Sharp biohazardous waste is any medical device that is sharp enough to puncture skin (not to mention a plastic bag) and that has been in contact with potentially infectious biological material. Sharps include things like scalpels, needles, microscope slides, saw blades, broken glass vials, etc.

Disposal Procedures

Contaminated sharps are picked up and disposed of by your local medical waste contractor. Plastic serological pipettes, while not sharp enough to puncture skin, can go through plastic bags, which is why they should be managed either as sharps or otherwise separated from the rest of the solid biohazardous waste.

4. Pathological Biohazardous Waste

Pathological waste includes removed human (or animal) organs, tissues, and body parts that have been exposed to infectious agents.

Disposal Procedures

It is commonly disposed of through incineration or chemical treatment, but not autoclaving.

B. Regulated Medical Waste (RMW)

Regulated medical waste (RMW), also known as biohazardous waste or infectious medical waste, is the portion of the waste stream that may be contaminated by blood, body fluids, or other potentially infectious materials, thus posing a significant risk of transmitting infection.

Disposal of Regulated Waste

Treatment and disposal of regulated medical waste requires a permit. RMW must be properly treated to destroy disease-causing organisms prior to disposal at an authorized solid waste management facility. Treatment includes autoclaving, incineration, or alternative treatment technologies (e.g., microwave, chemical disinfection, etc.) or other methods that meet New York State’s performance standards.

Colored Waste Bins for Biohazardous Waste Management

• Yellow Bags/Buckets: Infectious waste such as bandages, gauze, cotton, or any other objects in contact with body fluids, human body parts, etc.
• Red Bags/Buckets: Plastic waste such as catheters, injection syringes, tubings, IV bottles, etc.
• Blue Bags/Buckets: All types of glass bottles & broken glass articles, outdated & discarded medicines, etc.
• Black Bags/Buckets: Needles without syringes, sharps, and all metal articles, etc.

Methods of Sterilization with Examples

A. Physical Methods

1. Heat
   1. By Moist Heat
      • Boiling (10–15 min, ≥100°C). Example: Syringes, rubber goods, surgical instruments, etc.
      • Autoclave (15–30 min, 121°C & 15 pounds pressure). Example: Glassware, metal instruments, culture media, surgical dressing, etc.
      • Pasteurization (30 min for 60°C then 4°C). Example: Milk, dairy products, water, canned foods, etc.
   2. By Dry Heat
      • Red Heat (e.g., Inoculating wires, loops, forceps, etc.)
      • Flaming (e.g., Scalpel, neck of flasks, etc.)
      • Hot Air Oven (1.5 to 2 hrs at 160°C & 6 to 12 min at 190°C). Example: Glassware, glass syringes, oily injections, metal instruments, etc.
      • Incineration
2. Radiation (Gamma ray, X-ray, UV ray)

   Example: Disposable syringes, needles, transfusion equipment, etc.

3. Filtration (e.g., Bacterial Filter 0.5µm)

B. Chemical Methods

Example: Acids, Alcohol, Phenol, Formaldehyde, H₂O₂, Iodine, etc.

Chemical Hazards and Classification

A chemical hazard is a type of occupational hazard caused by exposure to chemicals in the workplace. Exposure to chemicals in the workplace can cause acute or long-term detrimental health effects.

Examples of hazardous chemical categories:

• Flammables/Combustibles: Gasoline, acetone, ethanol, propane, butane
• Corrosive Acids: Hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid
• Corrosive Bases: Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, ammonium hydroxide
• Toxics: Carbon monoxide, lead, mercury, benzene, toluene, xylene
• Highly Toxics: Cyanide, arsenic, hydrogen sulfide
• Oxidizers: Hydrogen peroxide, chlorine, nitric acid, potassium permanganate
• Compressed Gases: Oxygen, nitrogen, propane, helium, argon
• Cryogens: Liquid nitrogen, liquid helium, argon
• Pyrophorics (Air Reactives): White phosphorus, sodium, potassium, lithium
• Water Reactives: Sodium metal, potassium metal, calcium carbide
• Explosives: Dynamite, TNT, gunpowder, nitroglycerin
• Peroxide Forming Chemicals: Ether, tetrahydrofuran (THF), isopropyl ether

Electrical Hazards and Firefighting Equipment

An electrical hazard is a dangerous condition where a worker can or does make electrical contact with energized equipment or a conductor. From that contact, the person may sustain an injury from shock, and there is a potential for the worker to receive an arc flash (electrical explosion) burn, thermal burn, or blast injury.

Sources of Electrical Hazards

• Short Circuits
• Electrostatic Hazards
• Arc flash & Spark Hazards
• Combustible & Explosive Materials
• Improper Wiring
• Insulation Failure
• Hidden Power Supplies
• Improper Multimeter Selection or Use

Firefighting Equipment

• Buckets of water to extinguish fire
• Buckets of sand or dry soil
• Fire blanket
• Dry Powder

Fire Extinguishers and Their Types

A fire extinguisher is an active fire protection device used to extinguish or control small fires, often in emergency situations. Typically, a fire extinguisher consists of a hand-held cylindrical pressure vessel containing an agent which can be discharged to extinguish a fire.

Types of Fire Extinguishers

1. Water Fire Extinguisher: Air-pressurized water (APW) cools burning material by absorbing heat, used on Class A fires.
2. Foam Fire Extinguisher: Aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF) can be used on Class A and B fires.
3. Dry Powder Fire Extinguisher: Monoammonium phosphate, often with added Sodium bicarbonate or Potassium bicarbonate, used on Class A, B, C, D & E fires.
4. Carbon Dioxide Fire Extinguisher: Carbon dioxide can be used on Class B & E fires. They are usually ineffective on Class A fires.
5. Wet Chemical Fire Extinguisher: Potassium acetate, often with added potassium citrate or potassium bicarbonate, used on Class A & F fires.

UK Fire Classes

The UK recognizes six fire classes:

• Class A: Fires involve organic solids such as paper and wood.
• Class B: Fires involve flammable or combustible liquids, including petrol, grease, and oil.
• Class C: Fires involve flammable gases.
• Class D: Fires involve combustible metals.
• Class E: Fires involve electrical equipment/appliances.
• Class F: Fires involve cooking fat and oil.

Management of Highly Toxic Chemicals

The management of highly toxic chemicals involves handling these substances safely and responsibly to minimize the risk of harm to human health and the environment. Key principles include:

1. Proper Storage: Highly toxic chemicals should be stored in secure, well-ventilated areas, away from incompatible substances, and should be labeled with warning signs to indicate their hazardous nature.
2. Handling and Transport: Highly toxic chemicals should only be handled by trained and qualified personnel who have the appropriate protective equipment, and must be transported in accordance with regulations and guidelines.
3. Spill Response: Emergency response plans should be in place in case of a chemical spill, and personnel must be trained on how to respond to such situations, including how to contain the spill, prevent further contamination, and dispose of the waste safely.
4. Disposal: Highly toxic chemicals should be disposed of in accordance with local regulations and guidelines, which may include special handling, treatment, or disposal procedures to prevent harm to human health and the environment.
5. Risk Assessment: It is important to conduct a risk assessment to identify potential hazards associated with the handling and use of highly toxic chemicals, and to develop strategies to minimize the risk of exposure and harm.

Flammable and Corrosive Chemicals Management

Flammable chemicals are substances that can ignite easily and burn rapidly, such as gasoline, solvents, and some gases. They can cause fires and explosions, leading to severe injuries, property damage, and environmental pollution.

Corrosive chemicals are substances that can cause severe damage to living tissue or other materials upon contact, such as acids and strong bases. They can cause chemical burns, eye and skin damage, and even blindness.

The management of flammable and corrosive chemicals involves several key steps:

1. Safe Storage: Flammable and corrosive chemicals should be stored in designated areas that are clearly marked and secured to prevent unauthorized access. Storage areas should be well-ventilated and equipped with appropriate fire safety equipment, such as fire extinguishers and sprinkler systems.
2. Proper Handling: Personnel who handle flammable and corrosive chemicals should be trained in proper handling techniques and provided with appropriate personal protective equipment, such as gloves, safety glasses, and respirators.
3. Transport: Flammable and corrosive chemicals should be transported in approved containers and vehicles that are designed to prevent spills or leaks.
4. Spill Response: Emergency response plans should be in place in case of a spill, and personnel must be trained on how to respond to such situations, including how to contain the spill, prevent further contamination, and dispose of the waste safely.
5. Disposal: Flammable and corrosive chemicals should be disposed of in accordance with local regulations and guidelines, which may include special handling, treatment, or disposal procedures to prevent harm to human health and the environment.
6. Risk Assessment: A risk assessment should be conducted to identify potential hazards associated with the handling and use of flammable and corrosive chemicals, and to develop strategies to minimize the risk of exposure and harm.

Major Laboratory Equipment Hazards and Treatment

Equipment Hazards

Needles

Accidental inoculation, aerosol, or spillage.

Refrigerator

Provides ignition sources that can ignite vapors of flammable solvents.

Water baths

Growth of microorganisms.

Shakers

Aerosols, splashing, and spillage.

Batteries

Contact with each other leading to fire, explosion, or heavy metals hazards.

Dryers

Fire & burn risk.

Pipettes

Chemical & biohazards.

Hazard Treatment and Prevention

Perform cleaning, maintenance, and servicing as recommended by the manufacturer:

1. Prepare SOPs and a written maintenance schedule for each piece of equipment with a checklist of the tasks to be performed at specified times.
2. Always turn off and disconnect equipment before carrying out cleaning, maintenance, and inspections.
3. Inspect equipment regularly for corrosion, worn components, damaged insulation, frayed cable, loose connections, fungal growth, and insect and rodent infestation.
4. Do not overcrowd a bench with equipment because this will reduce the working area and increase the risk of the equipment being damaged from chemical spills and splashes or items being placed on the equipment.
5. Ensure the cable used is not longer than necessary, has no joins, is well insulated, and is not positioned near water or hot surfaces.
6. Avoid the use of multiple adapters, temporary connections, and extension leads because these can lead to overheating and bad connections.

Safe Use of Laboratory Equipment

Centrifuge Safety

• In order to prevent injuries or exposure to dangerous substances, employers should train workers to follow good work practices.
• Employers should instruct workers when centrifuging infectious materials that they should wait 10 minutes after the centrifuge rotor has stopped before opening the lid.
• To prevent contamination of the laboratory, rotor lids with special aerosol-tight gaskets are available.
• Workers should also be trained to use appropriate decontamination and cleanup procedures for the materials being centrifuged if a spill occurs and to report all accidents to their supervisor immediately.

Microscope Safety

• For both inexperienced and experienced users, microscopes should always be handled with care. Proper microscope use will help prevent damage to the equipment and prevent laboratory accidents such as breaking slides.
• Clean the microscope after each use.
• Handle glass slides carefully. If a slide breaks, ensure that the contents are properly disposed of.
• Turn off the light source when the microscope is not in use. This will improve lamp longevity and save energy.

Autoclave Safety

Never Put in Autoclave:

• Items containing corrosives, oxidizers, solvents, volatile substances, or radioactive materials.

*Note: Oxidizers + Organics + Heat = Explosion!

Autoclaving Waste Procedures:

• Regular autoclave cycle is for a minimum of 15 min at 121°C.
• When autoclaving waste, the internal temperature must reach a minimum of 115°C for 20 min.
• Infectious waste must be autoclaved for a minimum of 30 min at 121°C.

Process Use Suggestions:

• Read and understand operating and safety procedures from the owner’s manual.
• Be aware of the risks involved and use caution when operating an autoclave.

Engineering Controls:

Engineering controls will ensure autoclaves run self-checks to ensure all seals are working properly.

Required PPE:

Appropriate PPE (lab coat, safety goggles or face shield, heat resistant gloves, apron if applicable) are required when operating an autoclave.

Manufacturers’ Manual:

Read and understand the proper operating and safety procedures outlined in the owner’s manual.

Glassware Safety

Minimize damage, breakage, and risk of injury by:

• Not overfilling containers.
• Using separate containers for fragile cover glasses, slides, and sharp-ended Pasteur pipettes.

• Before reuse, inspect glassware, particularly tubes, pipettes, and specimen containers for cracks, broken, and chipped ends.
• Never centrifuge cracked tubes or bottles.
• Wear protective gloves when cleaning glassware and avoid overcrowding drainage racks.
• Store glassware safely. Do not leave it in open trays or other places where it can be damaged.
• To avoid spillages and breakages, use racks or trays to hold specimen containers and other bottles.

HEPA and ULPA Filters: Definition and Applications

HEPA stands for High Efficiency Particulate Air. HEPA filters are designed to capture particles that are 0.3 microns in size with a 99.97% efficiency rate. This means that HEPA filters can remove particles such as dust, pollen, and bacteria from the air, making it cleaner and safer to breathe.

ULPA stands for Ultra-Low Particulate Air. ULPA filters are designed to capture even smaller particles, down to 0.12 microns in size, with a 99.9995% efficiency rate. This makes ULPA filters even more effective at removing fine particles and contaminants from the air.

Applications of HEPA and ULPA Filters

1. Cleanrooms: Used to maintain clean air in manufacturing and research facilities, such as those used in the pharmaceutical, electronics, and aerospace industries.
2. Laboratories: Used in laboratory hoods, biosafety cabinets, and other equipment to protect workers and prevent contamination.
3. Hospitals: Used in operating rooms and isolation units to maintain sterile environments and prevent the spread of infections.
4. Homes: HEPA filters are used in air purifiers to improve indoor air quality and reduce the risk of allergies and respiratory problems.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) for RG2 and RG3 Pathogens

Risk Group 2 (RG2) and Risk Group 3 (RG3) pathogens are microorganisms that pose a moderate to high risk of infection to laboratory workers. When handling these pathogens, it is important to wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) to reduce the risk of exposure. Examples of required PPE include:

1. Lab Coat or Gown: Should be worn to protect clothing from contamination with infectious materials.
2. Respirator: Depending on the type of pathogen being handled, a respirator may be required to protect against airborne transmission.
3. Eye Protection: Safety glasses or goggles should be worn to protect the eyes from splashes or droplets of infectious materials.
4. Face Shield: A face shield may be required for additional protection of the face and neck.
5. Shoe Covers: Disposable shoe covers may be worn to prevent contamination of footwear.
6. Head Covering: A head covering may be required to prevent contamination of the hair and scalp.
7. Apron: An apron may be required for additional protection of the torso.

Biological Safety Cabinets (BSCs) and Safety Provision

A biosafety cabinet (BSC) or microbiological safety cabinet is an enclosed, ventilated laboratory workplace for safely working with materials contaminated with pathogens requiring a defined biosafety level.

BSCs are specialized laboratory equipment designed to provide a safe working environment for laboratory personnel and to prevent the release of harmful biological agents into the environment. BSCs provide safety in several ways:

1. Protection for Personnel: BSCs use high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters to capture and trap microorganisms and other airborne particles. This prevents laboratory personnel from inhaling harmful biological agents while working with them.
2. Protection for Products: BSCs provide a sterile working environment for the manipulation of biological agents, reducing the risk of contamination and ensuring the integrity of the products being worked with. This is particularly important when working with sensitive biological materials, such as cell cultures or viral vectors.
3. Protection for the Environment: BSCs prevent the release of harmful biological agents into the environment by capturing and filtering contaminated air through HEPA filters. This ensures that the laboratory environment remains safe and that biological agents do not escape and potentially cause harm to the surrounding community.

Radiation Definition and Health Effects

Radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles through space or through a material medium. Radiation is energy that travels in the form of electromagnetic waves or particulate matter, traveling in air.

Ionizing Radiation Effects

Ionizing radiation is a type of radiation that has enough energy to remove tightly bound electrons from atoms, which can create charged particles (ions) in the body. Examples include X-rays, gamma rays, and alpha and beta particles. Exposure can cause a variety of health effects, including:

1. Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS): ARS occurs when the body is exposed to a high dose of ionizing radiation over a short period of time. Symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, fatigue, and a weakened immune system. In severe cases, ARS can lead to death.
2. Cancer: Exposure to ionizing radiation increases the risk of developing certain types of cancer, such as leukemia, thyroid cancer, and breast cancer.
3. Genetic Damage: Exposure to ionizing radiation can damage DNA and increase the risk of genetic mutations and birth defects in offspring.

Non-Ionizing Radiation Effects

Non-ionizing radiation does not have enough energy to remove electrons from atoms. Examples include radio waves, microwaves, and visible light. Exposure to non-ionizing radiation can cause skin and eye damage, and long-term exposure to certain types (such as ultraviolet radiation from the sun) can increase the risk of developing skin cancer.

Radioactive Waste Management Procedures

Radioactive waste is any material that contains radioactive particles or radiation and requires special handling and disposal to prevent harm to people and the environment. Sources include nuclear power plants, medical facilities, research laboratories, and industrial processes.

Key steps involved in radioactive waste management:

1. Collection: Radioactive waste is collected and segregated based on its type, level of radioactivity, and physical properties.
2. Treatment: Radioactive waste is often treated to reduce its volume and radioactivity level. Common treatment methods include solidification, compaction, and vitrification.
3. Storage: Waste that cannot be immediately disposed of is stored in specially designed facilities, such as storage ponds, tanks, and casks. These facilities must safely contain the waste for extended periods and prevent the release of radioactive particles and radiation into the environment.
4. Transportation: Radioactive waste must be transported using specialized containers and vehicles that are designed to prevent spills, leaks, and other accidents that could release radioactive materials.
5. Disposal: Radioactive waste is disposed of in facilities that are specifically designed and licensed to safely contain and isolate the waste from the environment.

Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) Principles

Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) is a set of principles and standards that ensure the quality and integrity of non-clinical laboratory studies used to support regulatory submissions, such as those for drugs, chemicals, or medical devices.

The key principles of GLP include:

1. Organization and personnel, facilities
2. Equipment
3. Test and control articles
4. Standard operating procedures (SOPs)
5. Performance of the study
6. Reporting of results
7. Archives and records

Adherence to GLP principles is required for non-clinical laboratory studies that are used to support regulatory submissions in many countries. The application of GLP principles helps to ensure that laboratory data is of high quality and is reliable for regulatory decision-making.

Genetic, Somatic, and Teratogenic Effects of Radiation

Radiation can have different effects on living organisms, including genetic, somatic, and teratogenic effects.

1. Genetic Effects: Radiation can cause changes in the genetic material (DNA) of cells. These changes can be passed on to future generations and can increase the risk of genetic diseases and mutations. Genetic effects are of most concern in radiation protection, as they can have long-term impacts on the health of populations.
2. Somatic Effects: Radiation can also affect the cells and tissues of the body directly. Somatic effects can include acute effects, such as radiation sickness, as well as long-term effects, such as an increased risk of cancer. Somatic effects are typically of most concern for individuals who are exposed to high doses of radiation, such as those who work with radioactive materials or who have undergone radiation therapy.
3. Teratogenic Effects: Radiation exposure during pregnancy can also cause developmental abnormalities in fetuses. Teratogenic effects can include growth retardation, structural malformations, and functional abnormalities. The severity of the effects depends on the dose, timing, and duration of exposure, as well as the stage of fetal development.

Guidelines for a Code of Safe Laboratory Practices

A code of safe laboratory practices is a set of guidelines that outline safety standards for a laboratory. Some important guidelines include:

1. Personal protective equipment should be provided and worn as appropriate.
2. Chemicals should be handled and stored safely.
3. Laboratory equipment should be used and maintained properly.
4. Emergency procedures should be established and communicated to all laboratory personnel.
5. All laboratory personnel should receive appropriate training and education on safe laboratory practices.
6. Standard operating procedures should be established and followed for all laboratory procedures.
7. Good personal hygiene should be practiced to minimize exposure to hazardous materials.
8. Laboratories should take measures to minimize their impact on the environment.
9. Regular risk assessments should be performed and appropriate risk management strategies should be implemented.

Short Notes on Laboratory Safety Terms

1. Oxidizing Chemicals

An oxidizing chemical (oxidizer) is a substance that has the ability to oxidize other substances (cause them to lose electrons). Common oxidizing agents are oxygen, hydrogen peroxide, and the halogens. Oxidizers are a fire hazard.

An oxidizer is a type of chemical which a fuel requires to burn. Most types of burning on Earth use oxygen, which is prevalent in the atmosphere.

2. Cryogenic Chemicals

These materials are extremely cold (–100°C to –270°C). Upon contact with cryogenic materials, living tissue can freeze and become brittle enough to shatter. Additional hazards include rapid pressure buildup, oxygen enrichment, and asphyxiation.

• Cryogenic liquids and gases have many properties and hazardous characteristics in common with compressed gases.

3. Bioterrorism

According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, bioterrorism is the deliberate release of viruses, bacteria, toxins, or other harmful agents to cause illness or death in people, animals, or plants. This can be achieved in a number of ways, such as: via aerosol sprays; in explosive devices; via food or water; or absorbed or injected into skin.

Utilizing such weapons holds a certain appeal to terrorists; they have the potential to cause great harm, but they are also fairly cheap to produce when compared with missiles or other more high-tech equipment.

4. Highly Toxic Chemicals

These chemicals can cause serious injury or death at low concentrations. Highly toxics are chemicals with a lethal dose (LD50) of less than or equal to 50 milligrams per kilogram body weight or a lethal concentration (LC50) in air of less than or equal to 200 ppm. Some examples are hydrogen cyanide, mercury, lead, arsenic, and chlorine.

5. Chemical Spillage

A chemical spillage is an accidental release of hazardous chemicals into the environment, such as the soil, water, or air. It can occur during transportation, storage, handling, or use of the chemical, and can pose serious risks to human health and the environment. Immediate action should be taken to contain and clean up the spill, which may involve the use of specialized equipment and personnel trained in hazardous material management.

6. Incompatible Chemicals

Many common lab chemicals react in a dangerous manner if they come in contact with a specific chemical. Some such examples are listed below:

• Acetic Acid, Acetone, Alkali Metals, Chlorine, Chromic Acid, Cyanide, Flammable Liquids, Hydrogen Peroxide, Copper, Iodine.

7. Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)

A Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) is a document that provides health and safety information about products, substances, or chemicals that are classified as hazardous substances or dangerous goods. MSDS is an important component of product stewardship, occupational safety and health, and spill handling procedures. It is designed to provide both workers and emergency personnel with the proper procedures for handling or working with a particular substance.

8. Risk Groups

There are four risk groups (RG1–RG4), with RG1 being the lowest risk and RG4 being the highest risk.

• Risk Group 1: Includes microorganisms that are unlikely to cause disease in healthy individuals, such as common bacteria found in food or water.
• Risk Group 2: Includes microorganisms that can cause disease in humans, but are unlikely to spread rapidly or cause high mortality rates.
• Risk Group 3: Includes microorganisms that can cause severe or potentially lethal disease in humans, and can spread easily from person to person.
• Risk Group 4: Includes microorganisms that pose a high risk of causing severe or potentially lethal disease in humans, and for which there are no effective treatments or vaccines.

9. Chronic Radiation Syndrome (CRS)

Chronic radiation syndrome (CRS) is a condition that can occur after long-term or repeated exposure to radiation. It can take months or years for symptoms to develop and they can include fatigue, weakness, anemia, and an increased risk of cancer. Treatment for CRS typically involves managing symptoms and providing supportive care.

10. Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS)

Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS) is a serious condition that can occur after exposure to high levels of ionizing radiation over a short period of time. Symptoms can include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, skin burns, and fatigue, among others. Treatment is generally focused on managing symptoms and providing supportive care.

11. Safety Checklist

A safety checklist is a tool used to ensure that a laboratory is safe and complies with all relevant regulations and guidelines. It typically includes items such as:

1. Verifying the availability and proper use of personal protective equipment.
2. Checking for the presence of hazardous materials and ensuring proper storage.
3. Confirming the functionality of emergency equipment.
4. Ensuring proper waste disposal procedures are in place.

A laboratory safety checklist is an important tool to help prevent accidents, protect workers, and maintain a safe work environment.