Key Movements and Authors in American Literary History
Early American Literature and Colonial Foundations
Colonial Beginnings (1584–1660)
- 1584: Walter Raleigh receives a patent from Elizabeth I (failed attempt at colonization).
- 1607: Jamestown, the first permanent English colony in Virginia. Governed by John Smith (associated with Pocahontas).
- 1660: Renewal of interest in colonization.
Puritanism and Early Writers
William Bradford: Separatist and governor. Fled first to Holland. Author of Of Plymouth Plantation.
Puritanism: A religious reform movement in the 16th and 17th centuries where representatives sought to purify the Church of England of Roman Catholic practices.
- Poet: John Milton (Paradise Lost).
Anne Bradstreet (1612–1672): The first poet published from the American colonies. Wrote poems about daily life and religious doubts. Famous work: “To My Dear and Loving Husband.”
Core Puritan Tenets
- Man is inherently evil.
- Predestination.
- The Unpardonable Sin.
Samuel Sewall: Merchant in Boston and judge in the Salem Witchcraft Trials (1692–1693). Known for his Diary.
Jonathan Edwards (1703–1758): Key figure in “The Great Awakening.” Wrote “Personal Narrative.” Served as a missionary among Native Americans.
Edward Taylor (1642–1729): Teacher and Harvard graduate. Refused to sign an oath of loyalty in 1668.
Rationalism and the Enlightenment
Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790): Served on the committee for the Declaration of Independence (DOI, July 4, 1776, drafted by Thomas Jefferson). Works: “The Way to Wealth,” Autobiography.
Thomas Paine (1737–1809): Wrote Rights of Man, arguing against hereditary monarchy.
The Federalist Papers: 85 essays written to support the Constitution of 1789.
Romanticism and Transcendentalism
Washington Irving (1783–1859): The first American author to achieve international literary reputation.
Transcendentalism
Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882): Key figure in Transcendentalism. Work: “Nature.”
- For: View of the mind as creative.
- Against: Unitarianism and rigid dogmas.
Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862): Emphasized work, self-sufficiency, and simplicity. Work: “Walden.”
Margaret Fuller (1810–1850): Considered the first woman journalist and social critic.
Fireside Poets
Known for accessible rhymes, easy to remember, and standard forms.
- Henry Wadsworth Longfellow: “Hymn to the Night.”
- William Cullen Bryant (1794–1878): Considered the first American poet of distinction. Work: “Thanatopsis.”
Mid-19th Century Poetry
Walt Whitman (1819–1892): Work: “Leaves of Grass.”
Emily Dickinson (1830–1886): Lived a life of isolation; poems were discovered and published after her death.
Realism, Naturalism, and the Gilded Age
Realism Themes
Focus on growing up, freedom, and slavery.
Mark Twain (1835–1910): Known for humorous sketches for newspapers.
Boyhood Narratives
Main hero: Tom Sawyer (referencing The Adventures of Tom Sawyer).
Jack London (1876–1916): Atheist, socialist, and naturalist. Works: “The Law of Life,” “The Call of the Wild.”
Henry James (1843–1916): Works: “The Portrait of a Lady,” “The Ambassadors.”
Stephen Crane (1871–1900): Works: “The Red Badge of Courage,” “Maggie: A Girl of the Streets.”
Edith Wharton (1862–1937): Explored themes of cultural dislocation. First woman to receive the Gold Medal from the National Institute of Arts and Letters (1930). Popular novels during the Gilded Age: “The House of Mirth,” “The Age of Innocence.”
Kate Chopin (1850–1904): Collections: Bayou Folk, A Night in Acadie.
Sherwood Anderson (1876–1941): Known for short story collections.
Sinclair Lewis (1885–1951): First American Nobel Prize Laureate (1930). Style: Realism combined with humor and the grotesque. Works: “Main Street,” “Babbitt.”
Modernism, the Jazz Age, and the Lost Generation
The Jazz Age | The Lost Generation
Refers to disillusioned people following World War I.
The Iceberg Theory (Hemingway)
When a writer of prose knows enough of what he is writing about, he may omit things that he knows, allowing the meaning to surface implicitly.
F. Scott Fitzgerald (1896–1940): Works: “The Great Gatsby,” “This Side of Paradise.”
Ernest Hemingway (1898–1961): Nobel Prize (1954). Works: “The Sun Also Rises,” “The Old Man and the Sea.”
Historical Context: The 1929 stock market crash marked the beginning of the Great Depression.
The Harlem Renaissance (1918–1937)
Context: World War I caused a lack of workers, leading to the Great Migration of Black Americans from the South, Africa, and the Caribbean.
Langston Hughes (1902–1967): Known as the ‘Busboy Poet.’ Works: “The Negro Speaks of Rivers,” “The Weary Blues.”
Zora Neale Hurston (1891–1960): Work: “Their Eyes Were Watching God.”
Civil Rights Movement Milestones: Rosa Parks (1955), March on Washington (1963).
Mid-Century American Literature
Southern Literature
John Steinbeck (1902–1968): Nobel Prize winner. Known for humor and references to King Arthur (Tortilla Flat). Works: “The Red Pony” (short stories), “East of Eden,” “The Grapes of Wrath” (associated with Route 66).
William Faulkner (1897–1962): Nobel Prize winner. Novels: “Sartoris,” “The Sound and the Fury.”
Flannery O’Connor (1925–1964): Works: “Wise Blood,” “The Violent Bear It Away.”
20th Century American Drama
Context: William Dean Howells and Hamlin Garland established the first independent association in 1891 in Boston. The Little Theatre Movement (1920s) aimed to encourage truth and progress in American dramatic art.
Eugene O’Neill: The only Nobel Prize-winning U.S. playwright (1936). Known for serious plays, realism, and studying the forces of life.
Tennessee Williams: Plays: The Glass Menagerie, Cat on a Hot Tin Roof.
Arthur Miller: Shaped by the Great Depression. Plays: All My Sons, Death of a Salesman.
Literature of the 1950s and 1960s
The Beat Generation
Key Locations: New York (Columbia University), San Francisco.
Themes: Non-conformity, hedonism, creativity.
- Allen Ginsberg: “Howl” (1956).
- William S. Burroughs: “Naked Lunch” (1959).
- Jack Kerouac: “On the Road” (1957).
Ken Kesey: Created the band FURTHUR. Work: “One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest.”
Modern Poetry
William Carlos Williams (1883–1963): Poet and doctor, associated with Imagism.
Robert Frost (1874–1963): Focused on rural life, using colloquial language and metaphorical meaning.
Confessional Poetry
The term was first used in 1959 by critic M.L. Rosenthal about Robert Lowell’s Life Studies.
Themes: Marital problems, generational struggle, mental illness.
- Anne Sexton (1928–1974): Pulitzer Prize winner (Love or Die). Explored suicidal themes.
- Sylvia Plath (1932–1963): Work: “The Bell Jar.”
Analysis of Major American Literary Works
Symbolism in Literature
Themes: The consequences of pride, selfishness, and guilt.
The Scarlet Letter (Nathaniel Hawthorne)
Characters: Hester Prynne (accused of adultery), Pearl (her daughter), and Roger Chillingworth (her difficult, vengeful husband).
The Cask of Amontillado (Edgar Allan Poe)
A short story about revenge, deceit, and murder. Montresor tricks the drunk Fortunato by trapping him inside an ancient catacomb after Fortunato insulted him. Known for its use of irony.
Désirée’s Baby (Kate Chopin)
Characters: Désirée (an abandoned child raised by wealthy landowners, Monsieur and Madame Valmondé) and Armand (her strict husband). When their child is born with Black ancestry, Armand forces Désirée to leave, only to later discover the Black ancestry comes from his own mother’s roots.
Winesburg, Ohio (Sherwood Anderson)
Story: “Paper Pills”: Features Doctor Reefy, an old man who writes his thoughts on paper scraps and puts them into his pocket, worried that someone will misunderstand him. He briefly marries a tall, dark girl who came to him after becoming pregnant (and likely miscarrying). She dies a few months later.
The Leader of the People (John Steinbeck)
An old grandfather tells stories of fighting Native Americans, comparing his past adventures to hunting mice on the ranch. Characters: Jody Tiflin (son), Mother, and Carl (father).
The Killers (Ernest Hemingway)
The plot involves two hitmen (Al and Max) who enter a restaurant seeking to kill a boxer, Ole Andreson (a Swede), who is hiding out. Characters include Sam (cook), George (waiter), and Nick (protagonist). Ole likely suffers from depression.
The Great Gatsby (F. Scott Fitzgerald)
Characters: Jay Gatsby, Daisy Buchanan, Tom Buchanan (Daisy’s husband), and Nick Carraway (friend/narrator).
Everyday Use (Alice Walker)
Characters: Dee (the successful sister) and Maggie (who has facial burns and is shy). Maggie wanted to give the quilts to her sister, but their mother insisted Maggie keep them.
A Rose for Emily (William Faulkner)
Emily killed Homer Baron because he didn’t want to marry her. This was discovered after her death at her funeral. Themes include change, death, and the complexities of human relationships.
Good Country People (Flannery O’Connor)
Characters: Joy-Hulga (protagonist with a wooden leg) and Manley Pointer (a salesman and scam artist).
The Secret Life of Walter Mitty (James Thurber)
A humorous story about Walter Mitty, a daydreamer who fantasizes about being a successful surgeon and military captain. The story comments on the human desire to escape the monotony of everyday life and the power of imagination.