Key Moments in 19th and Early 20th Century Spain
Cacique
Caciquismo was a sociopolitical system of the Restoration, introduced by the regeneration and popularized by Costa. It fostered a very negative perception of public life because it meant that everything worked based on favors the bosses (usually large rustic landowners) granted to farmers in exchange for their votes, which were also, if necessary, paid in cash. This political corruption, which distorted elections, had many other manifestations, including differing constraints through the control of the apparatus of government and the judicial system and the falsification of results. This model was in place until 1923.
Canton
In the summer of 1873, during the First Republic, federal intransigents, due to the time taken to constitutionally define the Federal Republic, rose in various parts of Spain, claiming independent cantons. The Government of the Republic ordered the army to control the situation, which was done without difficulty except in Cartagena. The dominance of the naval base and the fortifications of this city gave the cantonalists some resilience, costing a great effort to reduce this canton. Cantonalism discredited and fatally damaged the federal project.
Convention of Vergara
Also known as the Embrace of Vergara, this treaty was signed in this town in Gipuzkoa between General Espartero, head of the Liberal troops, and General Maroto, chief of the Carlist forces, on August 31, 1839. It ended the First Carlist War in the North but was not accepted by the pretender Carlos, and the fighting continued in parts of the Levant (Maestrazgo). The agreement left open the question of the Basque Jurisdictions and provided for the incorporation of Carlist military personnel into the Army of Elizabeth II.
Royal Charter
This constitutional document (attached letter) was created in 1834 by Martínez de la Rosa. With it, the regent Maria Cristina started out of absolutism, to govern with a Parliament that should give satisfaction to the more moderate liberals. In reality, it was simply a call for cuts in which two houses were organized simultaneously (Estate of the Próceres and Estate of Attorneys) with low political representation and limited capacity. The system established in the statute failed to satisfy the liberals but helped acclimate the parliamentary system in Spain.
War in Cuba
In this Spanish colony, the search by the Cubans for their separation from Spain led to two wars of independence. The first began in 1868, taking advantage of the crisis in the Democratic Sexenio, and ended in 1878 without any definitive outcome. The second began in 1895, and in it, the Cubans were assisted directly by the United States. After three years of hard struggle, the Americans declared war on Spain. Their fleet defeated the Spanish, and U.S. forces landed on the island. By the Peace of Paris of 1898, a defeated Spain was forced to grant independence to the island.
Free Education Institution
This private pedagogic center was created in Madrid in 1876 by several teachers (Giner, Azcárate, Salmerón) expelled from public universities by the Cánovas government in 1875, which did not recognize academic freedom and forced teachers to respect Catholic dogma. The institution defended secular, streamlined, and practical education. Influenced by Krausism, these teachers understood that education was the best instrument to achieve social reform, walking towards progress and modernization. They introduced innovative teaching practices such as sports, field trips, and trips abroad.
Manifesto of the Persians
This paper was prepared by Mozo de Rosales and presented to Ferdinand VII in 1814, asking for the abolition of the Constitution and the return of absolutism. Its core was an attack on national sovereignty and the assertion of the absolute power of the King. It was argued that national sovereignty and the democracy it meant led to anarchy because the people, being immature, lacked the capacity to choose. Ultimately, the people were denied any involvement in power, and the manifesto advocated the maintenance of the privileges of the Crown and the nobility. This manifesto urged the King to carry out his coup and abolish the Constitution of 1812, regaining his absolute power.
Manifesto of Manzanares
The 1854 revolution, led by a military group, found itself in a dead end due to the strength of the government. So, to encourage the participation of the masses, the Manifesto of Manzanares was written. It contained various demands of the progressive party: extending the right to vote, changing the press law, eliminating the consumption tax, restoring the National Militia, ending the corruption of the palace clique, and so on. This manifesto inspired popular uprisings in the cities that were able to overthrow the government and lead to the triumph of the revolution.
Constitutional Monarchy
This is a system in which the power of the king or monarch is limited by the existence of a Constitution, which is the expression of national sovereignty. The King reigns, meaning he is a symbol representing the state, but does not govern. The government is freely elected by the citizens. The Constitutional Monarchy appeared in the 19th century and replaced, not without resistance, absolute monarchy, in which the king held all power.
Tragic Week
These events took place in Barcelona in July 1909. To mark the shipment of reserve soldiers bound for the war in Morocco, there was a popular riot that led to violent incidents. The masses stormed and burned convents and churches and committed all kinds of excesses. The government declared a state of war and sent the army to quell the uprising. The military action to restore order caused several deaths. Then, the anarchist Francisco Ferrer was tried and shot, accused of being the moral instigator of the events, which caused great scandal and led to the downfall of the Maura government.