Key Historical Terms: Early Modern Era to Imperialism
Early Modern Europe: Key Concepts
Political Systems & Society
Ancien Régime
A period covering the 17th and 18th centuries. During this time, European monarchs became more powerful; a more open economy was created; humanism developed; advances in science and philosophy were widespread; and new artistic styles emerged.
Absolute Monarchy
A political system in which the crown had unlimited authority, believed to be divinely granted. The king controlled the government and intervened in the economy, introducing protectionist measures. Louis XIV was a model for absolute monarchy.
Parliamentary Monarchy
A political system in which the monarch’s powers were limited by Parliament. It was established in England after the Glorious Revolution (1688) under William of Orange.
Estates of the Realm
An example of a closed society, common in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Age.
Economic Theories & Intellectual Movements
Mercantilism
An economic theory based on the idea that a country’s wealth depended on its accumulation of gold and silver.
Enlightenment
An important intellectual movement and new way of thinking that emerged in 18th-century France.
The Encyclopaedia
An extensive collection of writings coordinated by Diderot, summarizing knowledge from various fields of study.
Popular Sovereignty
A political theory introduced by Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
Physiocracy
An economic theory asserting that a nation’s wealth derives solely from its natural resources and agricultural production.
Economic Liberalism
A new economic doctrine by Adam Smith, whose basic principle is that the state should not intervene in the economy but allow free enterprise.
Enlightened Despotism
A form of government that developed in some European countries in the 18th century.
Trade & Manufacturing
Treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt
Peace treaties ending the Spanish War of Succession. As a result, Austria and Great Britain gained territories from Spain, and Philip V was recognized as king.
Domestic System
A manufacturing system widespread in the 17th century, where merchant-employers provided materials to rural producers for home-based work.
Royal Manufactures
Introduced in the 18th century, producing various luxury goods.
Triangular Trade
Atlantic trade routes connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas, primarily controlled by the British.
Esquilache Riots
Popular protests against reforms in Spain, with deeper underlying causes, such as laws passed by Charles III.
The Age of Revolutions: 18th & 19th Centuries
Bourgeois Revolutions
Bourgeois Revolutions
Occurred in the late 18th and 19th centuries, enabling the bourgeoisie to gain political power and social status previously held by the nobility in the Ancien Régime. The most important examples are the American Revolution and the French Revolution.
The American Revolution
The American Revolution
Also known as the American War of Independence, this was an insurrection by the thirteen colonies on the Atlantic coast of North America to gain independence from Great Britain (1775-1783).
George Washington
Commander-in-chief of the colonial military forces during the American Revolution. He became the first President of the United States in 1789.
The French Revolution
The Estates General
A general meeting representing the three estates of the realm: nobility, clergy, and the Third Estate. It was summoned by Louis XVI in 1789 to seek financial aid for the country facing bankruptcy.
Tennis Court Oath
Oath taken by Third Estate representatives in the Estates General at the beginning of the French Revolution. They declared themselves the National Assembly and vowed not to disperse until France had a Constitution.
Constituent Assembly
Phase of the French Revolution that began when King Louis XVI accepted the National Assembly’s mandate to write a Constitution (1791). This marked the end of absolute monarchy in France. Widespread popular revolt compelled the Assembly to enact legal reforms (e.g., equality before taxes).
Girondins
Moderate political faction during the French Revolution, representing and defending the interests of the wealthy bourgeoisie. They favored a constitutional monarchy and limited male suffrage.
Jacobins
Radical political faction during the French Revolution, representing the petite bourgeoisie. They sought to abolish monarchy, establish a republic, and introduce universal manhood suffrage. Their leader was Maximilien Robespierre.
Robespierre
Leader of the Jacobin faction, known as “the Incorruptible” due to his austerity and firm convictions. As a member of the Committee of Public Safety, he established the Reign of Terror, guillotining thousands suspected of being counter-revolutionaries.
Sans-Culottes
The common people of the lower classes in late 18th-century France, many of whom became radical and militant partisans of the French Revolution due to their poor quality of life under the Ancien Régime. They were often involved in popular protests and riots. To identify themselves, they did not wear culottes, a typical garment of the privileged (hence “sans-culottes,” meaning “without culottes”).
Flight to Varennes
Attempt by Louis XVI in June 1791 to flee France and seek support in Austria against the French Revolution. This event led to the French people losing confidence in their king, feeling betrayed.
The Directory
Phase of the French Revolution (1795-1799) during which limited male suffrage was re-established and a new, more conservative government, the Directory (with five members), was formed. The army’s power increased during this period, which ended with Napoleon’s military coup.
The Consulate
Phase of the French Revolution from Napoleon’s military coup in 1799 until the start of the Empire in 1804. A new government, the Consulate, was established with three consuls. They introduced reforms to end France’s political and economic instability. Bonaparte steadily gained power, declaring himself First Consul, then First Consul for Life, consolidating all authority.
Napoleon Bonaparte
French statesman and military leader who ruled France and much of Europe for over 15 years as Emperor. He spread revolutionary principles of equality and liberty across the continent and consolidated changes within France. He was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo (1815) and exiled to the island of St. Helena, where he died.
Civil Code or Napoleonic Code
A set of laws that applied equally to citizens. It introduced new concepts such as civil marriage, divorce, adoption, state education, and protection of private property. Nevertheless, the Code denied women all civil and political rights.
Imperialism & Global Expansion
Forms of Imperial Control
Imperialism
The practice of powerful countries extending their control or influence through various means, such as colonization, or more indirectly through the control of political or economic life.
Exploitation Colonies
Colonies primarily valued for their economic resources. The indigenous population was governed by a white minority from the colonizing country, aiming to economically exploit the area. Political control was exercised by a governor, high civil servants, and military commanders.
Settlement Colonies
Colonies with significant socio-economic value, where the majority of the population consisted of emigrants from the colonizing country. These were often considered overseas provinces and enjoyed political and economic autonomy. British settlement colonies, such as Canada, South Africa, and Australia, were known as Dominions.
Protectorates
Areas of strategic interest where a dual political power structure existed. The indigenous population maintained its own government and administration, but under the supervision of the colonizing power, which controlled foreign policy and defense. For example, Morocco was a French-Spanish protectorate.
Key Events & Conflicts of Imperialism
The Berlin Conference (1884-1885)
A meeting where European countries established procedures for acquiring African territory to avoid conflict among themselves. They agreed that claiming a territory required prior military occupation. France, Great Britain, and Germany were the major players.
Monroe Doctrine (19th-20th Centuries)
United States foreign policy opposing European colonialism in the Western Hemisphere. It asserted that any intervention in the political affairs of the Americas would be viewed as an act of war. Motto: “America for the Americans.”
American Civil War (1861-1865)
A civil war in the United States between the Union (the North) and the Confederacy (the South). The central conflict revolved around the legality of slavery. After four years, the Union won, and slavery was prohibited during Abraham Lincoln’s presidency.
Meiji Restoration (1868-1912)
An era of major political, economic, and social change in Japan. Reforms enacted during Emperor Meiji’s rule led to the country’s modernization and Westernization.
Fashoda Incident
Also known as the Fashoda Crisis, this was a conflict between France and Britain in Sudan (1898) as both countries sought to connect their colonial possessions in Africa.
Boer War
A military conflict between the British Empire, seeking control of South Africa due to its rich gold and diamond deposits, and the Boers, Dutch colonists settled there since the 17th century. The British won the war.
Boxer Rebellion
An uprising by a Chinese secret society in 1900, aiming to expel all foreigners from China. They killed many people and besieged European embassies. European countries, along with the USA and Japan, sent an army to Beijing in 1901, easily defeating them. The Chinese government was forced to pay compensation, and foreign troops were permanently stationed in the region.
Opium Wars
A series of conflicts between Great Britain and China, beginning in 1839 over the opium trade. The first war ended in 1842 with China’s cession of Hong Kong to the British, the opening of five Chinese ports to foreign merchants, and the granting of other commercial and diplomatic privileges.
The Suez Canal
An artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea. It was built by the French, but the British later acquired shares to improve communications between Great Britain and India. Today, it belongs to Egypt.