Key Historical Definitions: French Revolution to European Unifications
Key Figures and Events in 19th-Century European History
The Girondist Convention (1792–1793)
The Girondist Convention was the name given to the French National Assembly between 1792 and 1793. During this period, the Girondists held power. They proclaimed the Republic. King Louis XVI was executed in January 1793, leading the European monarchies to declare war on France. The subsequent phase of the Convention was led by Robespierre (the Jacobin period).
Maximilien Robespierre
Robespierre was the leader of the Jacobins. In 1793, he entered the Committee of Public Safety (the effective government), and from that moment on, he became the most powerful man in France.
The Directory (1795–1799)
The Directory was the government of France between 1795 and 1799. It was formed by five directors serving for a limited period. One of them was Napoleon Bonaparte. It failed due to the impossibility of achieving stability in France; some electoral results were annulled. Finally, Napoleon performed a coup, which the moderate bourgeoisie accepted. France was converted into a military dictatorship called the Consulate.
Napoleon Bonaparte: Rise and Fall
Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military leader born in Corsica. His career milestones include:
- He became a general at the age of 26.
- He served as one of the five members of the Directory.
- In 1799, he performed a coup and was appointed as First Consul.
- In 1802, he became Consul for Life, and in 1804, he crowned himself Emperor of France.
Napoleon attempted to conquer Europe, leading a French advance starting in 1803, converting several countries into “satellites.” Although he conquered almost all of Europe, he was defeated in Russia in 1812.
His final defeats:
- In 1814, he was defeated and imprisoned on the Island of Elba.
- He escaped and attempted to regain power (the Hundred Days).
- In 1815, he was decisively defeated at Waterloo.
He was imprisoned again and died in 1821.
The Consulate (1799–1804)
The Consulate was the French government between 1799 and 1804. It was formed by three members, with Napoleon initially serving as the First Consul for life. Although there was a parliament, this regime was not democratic, as it was not representative and merely confirmed Napoleon’s proposals. It functioned essentially as a military dictatorship.
Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815)
The Napoleonic Wars were a series of military conflicts between the French Empire and the European monarchies, lasting from 1803 to 1815.
The Congress of Vienna (1814–1815)
The Congress of Vienna was a major diplomatic meeting held in Vienna between late 1814 and early 1815. (During this time, Napoleon escaped from Elba and was subsequently defeated again.)
The primary purposes of the Congress were:
- Restoring absolutism in Europe following the Napoleonic Wars.
- Restoring legitimate monarchs to their countries.
- Redrawing the map of Europe, often without considering newly emerged national sentiments.
The Holy Alliance (1815)
The Holy Alliance was an agreement established in 1815 by Austria, Prussia, and Russia. It was not a military alliance, but rather a declaration based on Christian principles.
The Congress System
The Congress System was a mechanism established to solve disputes in Europe after the Congress of Vienna. Its function was interventionist: whenever an absolute monarchy was in danger, the rest of the European monarchies would meet and send troops to suppress the revolt.
It remained effective until the mid-1820s, when the United Kingdom decided to abandon it.
Otto von Bismarck
Otto von Bismarck was a German conservative politician. He was appointed as Prime Minister of Prussia in 1862 and later as the Chancellor of the German Empire in 1871. He led the German unification alongside Kaiser William I.
Giuseppe Garibaldi
Giuseppe Garibaldi was an Italian revolutionary who participated in the independence of the Spanish American territories and, later, in the unification of Italy.
He organized his own army and successfully dominated the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, which he subsequently ceded to Victor Emmanuel II.