Key Figures and Concepts in Literary Criticism
I.A. Richards: The Psychological Basis of Value
Richards addressed a fundamental question: How can we determine the value of art when traditional morals are declining?
His answer posits that value originates in psychology, specifically in the arrangement and balance of human desires.
Core Concepts in Richards’ Theory
- Impulses: Humans possess numerous desires that frequently clash. Society attempts to shape these impulses but never fully controls them.
- Appetencies and Aversions: Appetencies are desires (what we want); aversions are things we seek to avoid. Something holds value if it satisfies strong desires in a useful and efficient manner.
- Needs Hierarchy: Needs progress from basic requirements (food, sleep) to social needs, and finally to higher needs like freedom.
- Morality: Morality functions optimally when it balances competing desires and minimizes psychological waste.
The Role of Art and Literature
Literature is crucial because it helps us organize feelings, expand experience, and refine moral judgment.
Judging Literary Works
A work is perceived as fresh if its internal order is equal to or superior to the order of our own mind. Conversely, it feels dull if its organization is inferior.
Core Idea: Art and literature are essential because they aid in organizing life and facilitating adjustment to the complexities of the world.
Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve (1804–1869): The Biographical Critic
Sainte-Beuve rejected strict, abstract rules, preferring to judge literary works based on taste and extensive experience.
Sainte-Beuve’s Critical Method
He argued that the critic must first fully understand the writer—including their life, family background, historical context, and personal character—before attempting judgment.
- View on Writers: He famously stated: “No good or bad subjects, only good or bad poets.”
- Nature of Criticism: He viewed criticism as both a science (dealing with facts) and an art (bringing the writer vividly to life).
- The Critic’s Job: To resurrect the author, showcasing their habits, feelings, and unique originality.
Evolution of Taste
Initially, Sainte-Beuve favored the Romantic movement, but later shifted his preference toward Classicism, which he described as “healthy,” labeling Romanticism as “sickly.”
He allowed for diverse tastes but believed that deeper study inevitably leads to greater critical agreement.
Legacy of Sainte-Beuve
His major works, including Port-Royal, Chateaubriand and His Group, and Monday Chats (Causeries du Lundi), demonstrate his unparalleled skill in making writers come alive and connecting literary works with the realities of human life.
Core Idea: Effective criticism requires knowing the whole writer as a human being, moving beyond abstract judgment of the text alone.
Samuel Johnson (1709–1784): The Last Neoclassical Critic
Samuel Johnson was the final major neoclassical critic, following the tradition established by Dryden and Pope.
Johnson’s Poetic Principles
He asserted that the primary function of poetry is to illustrate general truths of nature and universal human passion, rather than focusing on minor, specific details.
- Preferences: He admired Dryden and Pope but expressed disapproval of Gray (finding him too Romantic) and Milton (finding him too Puritan).
Preface to Shakespeare
In his influential Preface to Shakespeare, Johnson offered a balanced critique:
- Praise: He lauded Shakespeare for accurately depicting universal human nature.
- Criticism: He faulted Shakespeare for being occasionally immoral, indecent, and overly reliant on wordplay.
Rejecting Neoclassical Rules
Johnson significantly broke with strict neoclassical doctrine by rejecting the unities of time and place, retaining only the unity of action. This critical move helped pave the way for the rise of Romanticism.
Matthew Arnold (1822–1888): Culture and Criticism
Arnold was deeply critical of industrial England, which he saw as achieving material progress without corresponding moral or cultural greatness. He famously categorized society:
- Nobles as “Barbarians”
- The middle-class as “Philistines”
- The poor as the “Populace”
The Function of Criticism
Arnold argued that the critic must maintain a neutral, non-political stance to introduce fresh ideas and prepare the intellectual environment necessary for the creation of great poetry.
The Future of Poetry
He strongly believed that poetry would eventually supersede religion and philosophy, becoming the primary source of truth and spiritual comfort for humanity.
Standards and Method
Arnold insisted that only the finest poetry, characterized by profound truth and high seriousness, deserved the highest critical rank.
He rejected historical or purely personal critical focuses and developed the touchstone method: testing new poems by comparing them against established lines taken from great masters (e.g., Homer, Shakespeare, Milton).
Limitations and Legacy
Arnold’s method was often criticized for being too narrow, leading him to exclude significant poets like Chaucer and Burns for supposedly lacking “high seriousness.”
Legacy: He successfully elevated poetry above both science and religion. His ideas later influenced critics like Babbitt and More in the New Humanism movement.
Aristotle’s Three Dramatic Unities
These principles, derived from Aristotle’s Poetics, were central to classical and neoclassical drama:
- Unity of Action: A play must feature one main plot, free from excessive subplots or side-stories. Every element must contribute directly to the overall structure and conclusion.
- Unity of Time: The dramatic action should ideally occur within a short, continuous period, traditionally limited to a single day (24 hours).
- Unity of Place: The entire story should unfold in one consistent setting or location, avoiding shifts between multiple distant places.