Key Factors Behind Chile’s Independence
External Factors for Chilean Independence
1. American Independence (1776)
The American Independence in 1776 demonstrated the viability of a republican system of government. It introduced new political ideas such as representative democracy, citizens’ rights, popular sovereignty (the right to choose one’s government), and civil liberties.
2. The Enlightenment
According to Enlightenment principles, society and the state must be organized by reason, which guarantees freedom, security, and happiness. The Enlightenment promoted the idea of defining and separating governmental power into three distinct branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. It also reinforced the concept of popular sovereignty. These influential ideas reached the Creole elite through their travels to Europe and via smuggled books.
3. French Revolution (1789)
The French Revolution of 1789 had two significant impacts in America. Firstly, it demonstrated that absolute monarchy was neither unalterable nor invincible, reinforcing Enlightenment ideals. Secondly, it instilled a fear of violence, leading many to advocate for peaceful transitions to independence.
4. Formation of Secret Societies
In Europe, and subsequently in America, a series of liberal secret societies emerged to discuss optimal forms of government. Many of these societies were formed by Masons and maintained the structure of Masonic lodges: closed, secret, and protected groups. The most important such society in South America was the Lautaro Lodge, notably including figures like Bernardo O’Higgins and José de San Martín.
Internal Factors for Chilean Independence
1. Bourbon Reforms of the 18th Century
The Bourbon Reforms aimed to make the Spanish Empire more efficient. However, they inadvertently created a power vacuum and a period of transition, which coincided with the independence movements. Many of these measures generated significant discontent among the Creoles. They faced increased taxes, restricted trade freedom, and were largely excluded from political office.
2. Antagonism Between Creoles and Peninsular Spaniards
A deep antagonism existed between the Creoles (Spaniards born in America) and the Peninsular Spaniards (born in Spain). The Peninsulars often viewed the Creoles with disdain. Creoles were largely barred from high public office and faced discrimination, perceiving the Peninsulars as solely interested in enriching themselves at their expense.
3. Example: British Invasions of Buenos Aires (1806-1807)
During the British Invasions of Buenos Aires in 1806-1807, the city was attacked by the English. The local population, including Argentines, successfully defended themselves without significant Spanish assistance. This event powerfully demonstrated that the American-born inhabitants were capable of self-defense and self-governance.
4. Crisis in Spain (Early 19th Century)
Political Instability and Economic Decline
- Inept Rule of Charles IV: King Charles IV was perceived as an ineffective ruler, preferring a life of leisure and delegating governance to various public officials.
- Economic Crisis: Spain’s economic situation was dire. Having largely missed the Industrial Revolution, Spain lagged significantly in industrialization. This forced the country to borrow heavily to purchase manufactured goods, and to survive, it had to impose higher taxes, which was unpopular with the populace.
Napoleonic Invasion and its Aftermath (1808)
In 1808, Napoleon sought to dominate Europe but faced resistance from England. To enforce a continental blockade against British trade, Napoleon prohibited all countries from trading with England. Portugal, heavily dependent on British trade, refused to comply. Consequently, Napoleon invaded Portugal, passing through Spain. He then decided to seize control of Spain itself, imprisoning King Ferdinand VII and placing his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, on the Spanish throne.
The Spanish people rebelled, seeking the return of Ferdinand VII. They formed local governing bodies, which eventually coalesced into the Central Junta and later the Council of Regency. However, Creoles in the American kingdoms argued that their loyalty was to the legitimate King of Spain, not to the Spanish nation or its temporary governing bodies. This assertion provided a crucial justification for Americans to establish their own provisional governments.
Across the American colonies, numerous local government juntas were formed. Spanish authorities were often removed from their positions, and the principle of popular sovereignty began to take root. Initially, these juntas aimed to defend the legitimate rights of the imprisoned king, but they quickly became platforms for self-governance.
5. Situation in Chile (1808-1810)
In 1808, Governor Luis Muñoz de Guzmán died, and Francisco Antonio García Carrasco, a military officer, assumed power. García Carrasco soon clashed with the Real Audiencia (Royal Court), as he sought to consolidate power, often against the wishes of the local Creole population.
Factors Leading to García Carrasco’s Loss of Prestige:
- Arrest of the Three Antonios: García Carrasco ordered the imprisonment of three prominent Creole conspirators, known as the “Three Antonios,” further alienating the local elite.
- The Scorpion Scandal: The governor was implicated in a corruption scandal involving the seizure of contraband English merchandise from the ship Scorpion. This incident, linked to figures like Juan Martínez de Rozas, exposed the governor’s corruption and further eroded his authority.
These conflicts intensified divisions between the Creoles (often referred to as “patriots” or “natives” in this context) and the “royalists” (those loyal to the Spanish crown). In 1810, facing immense pressure, Governor Mateo de Toro Zambrano y Ureta resigned, paving the way for the establishment of the First National Junta.
During this period, political pamphlets and magazines began to appear, disseminating liberal ideas and fueling public debate.