Key Events & Concepts of Early 20th Century History
Russian History: Autocracy, Revolution, and Stalinism
Czarist Autocracy: Absolute Rule in Russia
The Czarist autocracy was a system where the Tsar held absolute power, ruling by decree, unbound by any constitution or accountable to a parliament. A loyal bureaucracy and a powerful army maintained control of the empire, while the Orthodox Church served as the regime’s ideological pillar. Agriculture was the primary economic activity, with land owned by a privileged aristocracy. The majority of the population consisted of farmers.
Triggers of the October Revolution
The slow pace of agrarian reform and the continuation of World War I fueled popular discontent and boosted the influence of the Bolsheviks, who sought to overthrow the Provisional Government and establish socialism. Their goal was to form a government based on workers’ and peasants’ Soviets.
Combatants in the Russian Civil War
The new Soviet government faced a devastating civil war. A faction of the former Czarist army, composed of privileged classes and wealthy farmers, organized the so-called White Army. In response, the Bolsheviks created the Red Army, led by Leon Trotsky, which imposed its will.
Key Features of Stalinism
Stalinism imposed a command economy and a collectivist society, aiming to transform the USSR into a major industrial power. Private property was banned; land and factories became state property. Priority was given to heavy industry to build essential infrastructure. Stalin instituted a state-run economy, utilizing Five-Year Plans to centrally plan agricultural and industrial production.
Interwar Period: Economic Shifts & Political Extremism
The Roaring Twenties: Economic Boom & Bust
The United States emerged as the world’s leading economic power. While World War I had impoverished European countries, the United States experienced increased consumption and a booming stock market. However, this prosperity was not universal; unemployment spread, and consumption eventually declined.
Taylorism and Mass Consumption
Taylorism, a system of scientific management, significantly increased industrial productivity and reduced costs. Combined with rising worker salaries, aggressive advertising campaigns, flexible purchase terms, and accessible bank loans, Taylorism paved the way for an era of mass consumption.
Causes of the 1929 Stock Market Crash
Many shareholders recognized that stock prices were inflated beyond their actual value and could not continue to rise indefinitely. Mistrust spread among investors, and on October 24 (Black Thursday), a massive selling wave hit the New York Stock Exchange. Suddenly, everyone wanted to sell shares, and nobody wanted to buy. The overwhelming supply of shares caused their value to collapse, triggering the stock market crash of 1929.
The New Deal’s Impact on the U.S. Economy
The New Deal was a series of programs designed to promote economic recovery and lift the United States out of the Great Depression. It advocated significant state intervention to revive the economy. The New Deal led to a partial relaunch of the U.S. economy and a significant decrease in unemployment. However, the crisis was not fully overcome until the outbreak of the Second World War.
Italian Fascism and Mussolini’s Regime
The end of World War I left Italy facing severe human and economic consequences: 700,000 men had died, industries were underutilized, foreign debt was very high, and inflation had soared. This economic crisis exacerbated political instability and fueled strong social tension. In northern Italy, a significant labor movement developed. Mussolini initiated a process of restricting freedoms and persecuting opponents. After the 1924 elections, he announced the establishment of an authoritarian regime and assumed the title of Duce.