Key Eras in European History: From Al-Andalus to Reformation
The History of Al-Andalus: Islamic Spain
Al-Andalus was the Muslim state established on the Iberian Peninsula in the 8th century.
Conquest of the Visigothic Kingdom (711-718)
In 711, a Muslim army led by Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and defeated the Visigoths in the Battle of Guadalete. By 722, they controlled almost all the peninsula except a narrow strip in the north, where the Visigoths took refuge.
From Dependent Emirate to Independent Caliphate
Initially, the Umayyad Caliph of Damascus established the Emirate of Al-Andalus with its capital in Córdoba, ruled by an emir. In the mid-8th century, Abd al-Rahman I, the last surviving member of the Umayyad clan, fled to Al-Andalus. He proclaimed himself an independent emir, founding the Umayyad Emirate of Córdoba (756-929).
Golden Age: The Umayyad Caliphate (929-1031)
Abd al-Rahman III named himself caliph and proclaimed independence from Baghdad’s religious authority. For Al-Andalus, the Caliphate of Córdoba was an economic, cultural, and scientific golden age. Its power compelled the Christian kingdoms to pay taxes (parias) to maintain peace.
Division into Taifa Kingdoms (1031-1238)
In the early 11th century, the Caliphate faced a severe crisis. In 1031, the Muslim aristocracy divided Al-Andalus into over 25 independent kingdoms, known as Taifas. To prevent Christian conquest, the Almoravids (arriving 1086) and the Almohads (arriving 1147) arrived on the peninsula and took control of almost all Taifas. Following the decisive Muslim defeat in the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212), the Christian kingdoms conquered virtually all the Taifas.
The Nasrid Kingdom of Granada (1238-1492)
The last Muslim enclave was the Kingdom of Granada. For over two centuries, the Nasrid Kingdom was prosperous. In the late 15th century, the Catholic Monarchs decided to conquer the kingdom. Boabdil, the last Nasrid king, surrendered Granada in 1492, ending almost 800 years of Islamic rule on the Iberian Peninsula.
Medieval Art & Architecture
Romanesque Art
Romanesque Architecture
Main buildings were churches and monasteries, characterized by:
- Floor plan in the shape of a Latin cross.
- Short arm was the transept.
- Junction between the two arms was the crossing, often with a lantern tower above.
- Apse at the end of the church.
- Roof consisted of solid barrel vaults.
- Bell tower usually built on the outside.
- Semi-circular arches.
- Buttresses attached to the external vaults.
Romanesque Paintings
Frescoes and panels were common.
Romanesque Sculptures
Usually religious, with rigid figures. Commonly found on doorways, columns, and capitals.
Gothic Art
Developed in France in the mid-12th century, then spread through Europe, lasting until the 15th century. Key characteristics include:
- Pointed arches.
- Ribbed vaults.
- Flying buttresses.
- Pinnacles and spires.
- Stained glass windows.
Gothic Sculpture
Faces reflected emotions, figures were more voluminous, with narrative scenes and a sense of movement.
The Protestant Reformation
Expansion of the Reformation
The ideas of the Reformation spread quickly thanks to the printing press. Reformers believed in the individual interpretation of the Bible and rejected the authority of the Pope.
Lutheran Church
German princes and nobles supported Martin Luther’s ideas. Lutheranism spread through Germany, Sweden, Denmark, and Norway.
Calvinist Church
Calvinism began in Switzerland with John Calvin and spread through France. In Scotland, John Knox founded the Presbyterian Church. Its theology is based on predestination, asserting that God has already decided who will attain salvation and who will be condemned.
Anglican Church
Anglicanism began in England when the Pope refused to grant Henry VIII an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. In 1534, Henry VIII separated from Rome and proclaimed himself the Supreme Head of the Church of England.
The Renaissance
The Renaissance was an artistic movement linked to the humanist cultural revolution. It began in Italy in the 15th century (Quattrocento, centered in Florence) and reached its peak in the 16th century (Cinquecento, centered in Rome).