Key Eras in Early 20th Century Spanish History
The Crisis of 1898
In 1895, an independence movement erupted in Cuba. In 1898, the United States declared war on Spain following the sinking of the battleship Maine in Havana. The disaster of ’98 came with the Spanish defeat, leading to the frustration of the Spanish political class and the pessimism of intellectuals. From this climate, the intellectual movement known as Regeneracionismo emerged, denouncing the decline of Spain and proposing reforms to overcome it. Its most prominent figure was Joaquín Costa.
The Constitutional Reign of Alfonso XIII (1902-1923)
In 1902, Alfonso XIII ascended to the throne. The 1876 Constitution remained in force, and the system of turnismo (alternating parties) continued. The Conservative Party, previously led by Cánovas, was now led by Maura, while the Liberal Party, previously led by Sagasta, was led by Canalejas. Maura aimed to end the chieftaincy system (caciquismo) and reform electoral and local government laws, but to no avail. Canalejas pursued a decentralization policy and adopted the “Law of the Lock,” which banned new religious orders in Spain. The Catalan and Basque bourgeoisie began to support nationalist parties (the Catalan League and the Basque Nationalist Party), while parts of the middle classes and workers voted for Republicans and the PSOE. Trade unions like the UGT and CNT gained significant strength.
In 1909, the Tragic Week occurred, a popular uprising in Barcelona triggered by the sending of troops to the war in Morocco. The most significant challenge was the Crisis of 1917, which saw concurrent military protests, political dissent, and a burgeoning labor movement. Between 1919 and 1923, social violence erupted. The influence of the Russian Revolution radicalized the labor movement, and governments and employers resorted to violence to suppress it. Political parties collaborated in forming concentration governments. Between 1917 and 1923, there were 43 changes of government, highlighting the extreme political instability.
The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1930)
Amidst this crisis, the defeat at Annual in 1921 during the Moroccan War further destabilized the country. A segment of the army decided to seize power. In 1923, General Primo de Rivera staged a coup. He suspended the constitution, dissolved Parliament, and banned political parties and trade unions. He also brought an end to the war in Morocco. The dictatorship lasted until 1930, bolstered by economic prosperity. This economic boom was utilized for public works and to promote industrial development.
In 1929, the king withdrew his support for Primo de Rivera, who resigned in January 1930. Alfonso XIII commissioned the formation of a new government to convene elections and restore the constitution. Republican politicians, socialists, monarchists, and even Catalanists signed the Pact of San Sebastián in August 1930, aiming to establish a republic.
The Second Spanish Republic: A Democratic Regime
In 1931, municipal elections were held. Held on April 12, they resulted in a victory for Republican candidates. Alfonso XIII went into exile, and a provisional government was formed, which proclaimed the Second Republic.
The Provisional Government and the Constitution of 1931
The new provisional government was composed of parties that had signed the Pact of San Sebastián and was presided over by Alcalá Zamora. The Cortes (Parliament) developed the Constitution of 1931. Its innovations included:
- Widespread recognition of individual liberties.
- Universal suffrage without distinction of sex (a first in Spain).
- A secular state.
- Decentralized territorial organization.
- An emphasis on social welfare.
While this constitution was the first fully democratic one, it was drafted without broad consensus. Consequently, a segment of the country did not identify with the new regime. Thus, the political climate became tense: isolated incidents occurred, and conspiracies began. In December, more moderate Republicans left the government. Alcalá Zamora became President of the Republic, and Azaña was appointed Prime Minister.