Key Dynasties and Concepts of Early Imperial China
Foundations of Imperial China (1600 BCE – 705 CE)
This glossary defines key dynasties, philosophies, and cultural milestones that shaped early Chinese civilization, from the Bronze Age Shang Dynasty through the cosmopolitan Tang era.
Shang and Zhou Dynasties (1600–221 BCE)
Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE)
The first historically confirmed Chinese dynasty centered along the Yellow River. It was ruled by kings claiming divine authority and is known for:
- Bronze metallurgy
- Oracle bones
- Urbanization
- Ancestor worship
Oracle Bones (c. 1200 BCE)
Animal bones or turtle shells used for divination during the Shang Dynasty. Questions were inscribed, heated, and the cracks interpreted; they contain the earliest known Chinese writing.
Sanxingdui (c. 1200–1000 BCE)
Archaeological site in Sichuan province revealing a unique Bronze Age culture distinct from the Shang, famous for large bronze masks and jade artifacts.
Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 1046–771 BCE)
Successor to the Shang after King Wu’s conquest. This dynasty introduced the Mandate of Heaven and ruled through a feudal system of regional lords loyal to the king.
Mandate of Heaven (Tianming)
Zhou-era political theory stating that rulers governed by divine approval based on virtue. The loss of virtue justified rebellion and dynastic change.
Spring and Autumn Period (770–481 BCE)
Early Eastern Zhou era marked by political fragmentation and frequent warfare. Known for the rise of major philosophers like Confucius and Laozi.
Warring States Period (475–221 BCE)
The final stage of the Zhou dynasty when seven major states competed for dominance. Characterized by military innovation, diplomacy, and the flourishing of the Hundred Schools of Thought.
Classical Chinese Philosophies
Confucius (Kong Fuzi, 551–479 BCE)
Philosopher from the state of Lu who emphasized virtue, filial piety, education, and moral order. His teachings are collected in the Analects.
Mencius (Mengzi, 372–289 BCE)
Prominent Confucian thinker who taught that human nature is inherently good and that rulers should lead through moral example.
Daoism (Taoism)
Philosophy linked to Laozi and the Dao De Jing. It advocates harmony with the Dao (the Way), simplicity, natural balance, and non-action (wu wei).
Legalist School (Fa Jia)
Political philosophy emphasizing strict laws, centralized authority, and harsh punishments, arguing humans are naturally selfish and need control.
Lord Yang (Shang Yang, c. 390–338 BCE)
Legalist reformer in the Qin state whose agricultural, military, and administrative reforms strengthened Qin power before unification.
Qin and Han Empires (221 BCE – 220 CE)
Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE)
The first unified Chinese empire under Qin Shi Huangdi. Key achievements include:
- Standardizing writing, weights, and currency.
- Enforcing Legalist rule.
- Massive construction projects such as the Great Wall.
Qin Shi Huangdi (r. 221–210 BCE)
The “First Emperor” of China. He centralized power, abolished feudalism, built roads and canals, and ordered the creation of the Terra-Cotta Army.
Terra-Cotta Army (c. 210 BCE)
Thousands of life-size clay soldiers buried with Qin Shi Huangdi to guard him in the afterlife, symbolizing imperial power and belief in immortality.
Centralized Bureaucratic Government
A system in which officials were appointed by the emperor rather than by heredity. This established uniform laws, taxes, and administration, forming the foundation of China’s imperial state.
Han Wudi (r. 141–87 BCE)
The “Martial Emperor” of the Han dynasty. He expanded China’s territory, strengthened central rule, promoted Confucianism as state ideology, and opened trade routes leading to the Silk Road.
Dong Zhongshu (c. 179–104 BCE)
Scholar who fused Confucianism with cosmology, emphasizing harmony between Heaven and humanity and helping make Confucianism the official Han ideology.
Mawangdui (2nd century BCE)
Han-era tomb complex in Hunan containing well-preserved silk manuscripts, maps, and the body of Lady Dai, offering insights into early Chinese culture and medicine.
Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji)
Monumental history written by Sima Qian (c. 145–86 BCE) covering China’s past from the mythic Yellow Emperor to his own time. It set the model for later dynastic histories.
Silk Road (began c. 130 BCE)
A network of trade routes connecting China with Central Asia, India, and the Mediterranean. It facilitated the exchange of silk, spices, art, and ideas such as Buddhism.
Post-Han Disunity and the Tang Era
Three Kingdoms (220–280 CE)
Era of disunity following the Han collapse with rival states Wei, Shu, and Wu. Famous for military conflicts and the Romance of the Three Kingdoms.
Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534 CE)
Founded by Tuoba (Xianbei) nomads who unified northern China, promoted Buddhism, and adopted Chinese culture through sinicization.
Equal-Field System
Land distribution system developed under the Northern Wei and perfected under the Tang, allocating land based on family size to ensure fairness and reduce aristocratic control.
Mahayana (Greater Vehicle)
Major Buddhist branch emphasizing compassion, universal salvation, and the Bodhisattva ideal. It spread widely across China, Korea, and Japan.
Sui Dynasty (581–618 CE)
Reunified China after centuries of division. Known for grand construction projects such as the Grand Canal; collapsed from overextension and revolts.
Grand Canal (completed c. 610 CE)
Massive waterway linking the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers. It enabled north–south trade and grain transport, strengthening economic unity.
Empress Wu of Tang (r. 690–705 CE)
The only female emperor in Chinese history. She strengthened bureaucracy, supported Buddhism, and ruled effectively during the Tang dynasty.
Chang’an (Tang Dynasty)
The Tang capital (modern Xi’an), one of the world’s largest and most cosmopolitan cities, serving as a center of trade, culture, and diplomacy along the Silk Road.