Key Concepts of Transformative Eras: Science, Enlightenment, Industry
The Scientific Revolution
Geocentric Theory
An Earth-centered view of the universe.
Heliocentric Theory
The theory that the Sun is at the center of the universe.
Galileo Galilei
A scientist who was forced by the Catholic Church to retract scientific ideas that conflicted with the Church’s doctrine.
Scientific Method
A logical procedure for gathering and testing ideas.
Isaac Newton
A scientist renowned for discovering the laws of motion and universal gravitation.
Nicolaus Copernicus
Devised a model of the universe with the Sun, not Earth, at its center.
Scientific Revolution
A new way of thinking about the natural world, based on careful observation and a willingness to question established beliefs.
The Enlightenment
The Enlightenment
Often referred to as the ‘Age of Reason’, a philosophical movement emphasizing reason and individualism.
Social Contract
An agreement among individuals to cooperate for social benefits, often implying an agreement between the governed and their government.
John Locke
An English philosopher who advocated the idea of a “social contract,” asserting that government powers are derived from the consent of the governed.
Philosophes
Influential thinkers of the Enlightenment, primarily social critics in France, who applied reason to all aspects of life.
Voltaire
A French writer who championed tolerance, reason, freedom of religious belief, and freedom of speech.
Baron de Montesquieu
A French writer and political philosopher concerned with government and the preservation of political liberty, advocating for the separation of powers.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
An influential Enlightenment thinker who passionately championed individual freedom and the concept of the general will.
Mary Wollstonecraft
An English writer and early feminist who eloquently advocated for women’s rights and education.
Salon
A social gathering, typically held in private homes, for discussing intellectual ideas or enjoying artistic performances.
Baroque Style
An artistic style prevalent in the seventeenth century, characterized by grand, ornate, and dramatic forms.
Neoclassical Style
A simple and elegant artistic style that drew inspiration from the classical art and culture of ancient Greece and Rome.
Enlightened Despot
An absolute ruler who embraced and implemented some Enlightenment ideas, but without relinquishing their absolute power.
Frederick the Great
King of Prussia who granted his people religious freedom and significantly improved the nation’s schooling system.
Catherine the Great
An influential Russian ruler who initiated significant reforms and modernization efforts in Russia.
The French Revolution
Louis XVI of France
The King of France at the onset of the French Revolution, ultimately executed for treason.
Marie Antoinette
Queen of France, wife of Louis XVI, whose extravagance and opposition to reform contributed to her unpopularity and the overthrow of the monarchy. She was eventually guillotined.
Estates-General
An assembly of representatives from all three social classes, or estates, in France, convened by the King.
National Assembly
A revolutionary French congress established by representatives of the Third Estate to enact laws and reforms on behalf of the French people.
Tennis Court Oath
A pivotal pledge made by Third Estate representatives, vowing not to disperse until a new constitution for France was drafted.
The Great Fear
A wave of widespread panic and unrest that swept through the French countryside following the storming of the Bastille in 1789.
The Industrial Revolution
Industrial Revolution
A period of significant improvements in industrial technology that fundamentally transformed the process of manufacturing goods and societal structures.
Enclosure
The process of taking over and consolidating land previously shared by peasant farmers, often for more efficient agricultural practices.
Crop Rotation
The practice of planting different crops sequentially on the same land to improve soil health, optimize nutrient use, and combat pest and weed pressure.
Industrialization
The widespread development of industries in a country or region, characterized by the shift to machine production of goods.
Factors of Production
The essential resources required to produce goods and services: land, labor, and capital.
Factory
A large industrial building where goods are manufactured using machinery and a workforce.
Urbanization
The process of city building and the significant migration of people from rural areas to urban centers.
Laissez-faire
An economic theory advocating that governments should not interfere with business affairs or the free market.
Adam Smith
A Scottish philosopher and economist, widely considered the “Father of Modern Economics,” who famously defended the principles of laissez-faire economics.
Capitalism
An economic system characterized by private or corporate ownership of capital goods, where investments are determined by private decision, and prices, production, and the distribution of goods are determined mainly by competition in a free market.
Karl Marx
A German philosopher, economist, and revolutionary socialist who, with Friedrich Engels, wrote about a radical form of socialism, famously outlining the theory of communism.