Key Concepts in Social and Organizational Psychology

Posted on Aug 13, 2025 in Psychology and Sociology

Social Psychology & Organizational Behavior: Core Concepts

Latané & Darley’s Decision Model (1968)

Latané & Darley’s decision model outlines the steps individuals take when deciding whether to intervene in an emergency:

  1. Notice the incident.
  2. Define the situation as an emergency.
  3. Assume personal responsibility.
  4. Feel competent to help.

Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions

Geert Hofstede’s framework identifies six dimensions reflecting how a society values relationships, social structures, achievements, uncertainty, time, and pleasure:

  1. Power Distance: The extent to which less powerful members of institutions and organizations accept and expect that power is distributed unequally.
  2. Individualism vs. Collectivism: The degree to which individuals are integrated into groups. Individualism emphasizes individual goals; collectivism emphasizes group goals.
  3. Masculinity vs. Femininity: Masculinity represents a preference for achievement, heroism, assertiveness, and material rewards for success. Femininity stands for a preference for cooperation, modesty, caring for the weak, and quality of life.
  4. Uncertainty Avoidance: The extent to which a society tolerates ambiguity and change. High uncertainty avoidance societies have a low tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity.
  5. Long-Term vs. Short-Term Orientation: Focus on future rewards (long-term) versus maintaining traditions and norms while viewing societal change with suspicion (short-term).
  6. Indulgence vs. Restraint (since 2010): Indulgence stands for a society that allows relatively free gratification of basic and natural human desires related to enjoying life and having fun. Restraint stands for a society that suppresses gratification of needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms.

Moscovici’s Minority Influence

For a minority to influence a majority, the following conditions must be met by the minority:

  • Consistency: Maintaining a consistent position over time.
  • Identification: The majority identifies with the minority’s values or goals.
  • Personal Sacrifice: Demonstrating commitment through personal cost.
  • Flexibility: Willingness to compromise to some extent.
  • Systematic Thinking: Encouraging the majority to think deeply about the issue.
  • Autonomy: Appearing independent and not driven by external motives.

Leadership Theories

The Big Five Model of Leadership Traits

This trait theory suggests that effective leaders often possess these five broad personality traits:

  • Extraversion: Outgoing, sociable, assertive.
  • Openness to Experience: Imaginative, curious, open to new ideas.
  • Agreeableness: Cooperative, trusting, empathetic.
  • Emotional Stability (Neuroticism): Calm, secure, resilient (low neuroticism).
  • Conscientiousness: Organized, responsible, dependable.

Behavioral Leadership Styles

  • People-Oriented Behavior:
    • Concern for employees’ needs.
    • Making the workplace pleasant.
  • Task-Oriented Behavior:
    • Assigning work and clarifying responsibilities.
    • Setting goals and deadlines, providing feedback.

Blanchard and Hersey’s Situational Leadership Theory (1969)

This theory proposes that effective leaders must adjust their leadership style based on the readiness or maturity level of their followers. Leaders should adopt a different leadership style depending on whether followers are at a low, moderate, or high level of readiness. The leader’s goal is to help followers move toward greater maturity and self-reliance.

Transactional vs. Transformational Leadership

  • Transactional Leadership: Focused on managing the status quo, achieving short-term goals, and using rewards and punishments.
  • Transformational Leadership: Focused on creating meaningful change, inspiring followers, and achieving long-term success through shared vision and motivation.

Identity Leadership (Steffens et al.)

This leadership approach emphasizes the importance of leaders’ ability to shape and mobilize their followers’ collective identity towards a shared vision and common goals. Leaders are most effective when they build and represent a shared group identity. Key aspects include:

  • Be One of Us: Leaders embody the group’s identity.
  • Do It For Us: Leaders act in the interest of the group.
  • Craft a Sense of Us: Leaders strengthen group identity.
  • Make Us Matter: Leaders enhance the group’s significance.

Motivation Theories

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Herzberg’s theory proposes that motivation comes from intrinsic motivators (satisfiers). To create a motivated workforce, organizations need to focus on providing factors that lead to job satisfaction (e.g., achievement, recognition) while also eliminating factors that lead to job dissatisfaction (hygiene factors).

Skinner’s Reinforcement Theory

This theory states that people learn to behave in ways that lead to desired outcomes or help them avoid undesired ones:

  • Positive Reinforcement: Providing a reward to increase desired behavior.
  • Negative Reinforcement: Removing something unpleasant to increase desired behavior.
  • Punishment: Applying an undesirable consequence to reduce unwanted behavior.
  • Extinction: Withholding a reward to stop a behavior.

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

People are motivated when they believe their effort will lead to performance, and performance will lead to a valued reward. This theory involves three key components:

  • Expectancy: The belief that effort will lead to performance. “Can I do it?”
  • Instrumentality: The belief that good performance will lead to a reward. “Will I be rewarded?”
  • Valence: The value or attractiveness of the reward to the individual. “Do I care about the reward?”

Example: “If I study, I will pass (Expectancy). If I pass, I will go to London (Instrumentality). I value going to London (Valence), so I am motivated to study.”

Social Psychology Concepts

Tajfel and Turner’s Social Identity Theory

Our self-concept is partly derived from the groups we belong to (e.g., nationality, religion). This theory involves three processes:

  • Social Categorization: Classifying people (including ourselves) into groups.
  • Social Identification: Adopting the identity of the group we categorize ourselves into.
  • Social Comparison: Comparing our group to others to boost self-esteem.

Argyle’s Self-Esteem Theory

According to social psychologist Michael Argyle, self-esteem is an individual’s overall evaluation of their worth or value as a person. It reflects an individual’s perception of their abilities, achievements, and social status in comparison to others. Argyle discussed his views on self-esteem and its relationship to happiness in “The Psychology of Happiness” (1987). The four major factors influencing self-esteem are:

  1. Reactions of Others: How others perceive and interact with us (admiration vs. avoidance).
  2. Comparison with Reference Group: Comparing ourselves to others (less successful vs. more successful).
  3. Social Roles: The prestige or stigma associated with our roles.
  4. Identification with Roles and Groups: The extent to which we identify with prestigious or stigmatized roles and groups.

High self-esteem generally leads to better mental health.

Goffman’s Self-Presentation & Impression Management

We manage how others see us, much like actors on a stage. People act as performers, managing impressions in social interactions.

  • Strategic Self-Presentation: Controlling how we appear to influence others (e.g., a job interview).
  • Expressive Self-Presentation: Showing how we truly are (e.g., with close friends).

Jones and Pitman’s Impression Management Tactics

These tactics are used to manage impressions and gain social advantage:

  1. Ingratiation: Being likable.
  2. Self-Promotion: Highlighting one’s achievements and competence.
  3. Supplication: Appearing needy to elicit help.
  4. Intimidation: Asserting power to evoke fear or respect.
  5. Exemplification: Appearing morally worthy or dedicated.

Jen’s Self-Concept in Different Cultures

Cultural influence shapes how people think about themselves, their goals, and social behavior:

  • Western Cultures: Emphasize individuality, leading to an independent self-concept. Focus on personal traits.
    Example: An American student describes herself as funny and smart.
  • Eastern Cultures: Emphasize relationships and social roles, leading to an interdependent self-concept. Focus on relationships and roles.
    Example: A Japanese student describes herself as a good daughter or friend.

Zajonc’s Social Facilitation & Inhibition

This refers to the effects that the presence of others can have on an individual’s performance:

  • Social Facilitation: People perform better at tasks they’re good at when others are watching.
  • Social Inhibition: If individuals are not skilled at something, an audience can make them perform worse.

Latané et al.’s Social Loafing (1979)

The phenomenon where individuals exert less effort in a group task compared to when working individually. “Many hands make light the work” is often cited. Research found that social loafing begins to kick in at 4-5 members per group.

Ways to mitigate social loafing:

  • Creating a sense of individual accountability.
  • Setting clear goals and expectations.
  • Fostering a positive group dynamic.

How to prevent social loafing:

  • Select members who have high motivation.
  • Engage in peer evaluation.
  • Set clear group goals and norms.
  • Increase interaction and group competition.

Prejudice, Discrimination, & Stereotypes

  • Prejudice: An unfavorable attitude towards a member of a social group.
  • Discrimination: Hostile behaviors towards a specific social group.
  • Stereotype: A fixed, oversimplified belief about a group of people.

Subtle Forms of Discrimination

  1. Reluctance to Help: People are less willing to provide assistance or support to members of certain groups based on their race, gender, or other characteristics.
  2. Tokenism: Including members of certain groups in a superficial or symbolic way to create the appearance of diversity without actually addressing underlying inequalities.
  3. Reverse Discrimination: Occurs when members of historically advantaged groups feel they are being unfairly treated or discriminated against because of affirmative action or diversity policies designed to address past discrimination.

Forms of Discrimination in the Workplace

  1. Unequal Pay: Women are often paid less than men for doing the same job, even with the same qualifications and experience.
  2. Glass Ceiling: Women may be prevented from advancing to higher positions in a company due to gender-based stereotypes and biases.
  3. Maternity Discrimination: Women may be discriminated against or penalized for taking time off work for maternity leave.
  4. Sexual Harassment: Unwanted sexual advances or comments from colleagues or superiors, creating a hostile work environment.
  5. Gender-Based Job Segregation: Women may be concentrated in certain low-paying, female-dominated jobs, while men dominate higher-paying, male-dominated jobs, resulting in gender-based segregation and inequality.

Glick & Fiske’s Ambivalent Sexism Theory (1996)

This theory suggests that attitudes towards women are shaped by two forms of sexism:

  • Hostile Sexism: Overtly negative and hostile attitudes towards women.
  • Benevolent Sexism: Subtly positive but still reinforces traditional gender roles and stereotypes (e.g., “women should be protected”).