Key Concepts in Modern European History
Absolutism
Definition: A monarch possesses absolute power, rules by divine right, and centralizes government.
Key Examples
- France: Louis XIV, who famously stated, “I am the state.” Characterized by a strong army and expensive wars.
- Spain: Philip II led as a Catholic power, though subsequent wars weakened Spain.
- Russia: Peter the Great and Catherine the Great pursued westernization alongside autocracy, maintaining strong control and continuing serfdom.
Note: If the question mentions Parliament, law, or limits on power, consider England. If it mentions divine right or absolute power, choose absolutism.
Enlightenment Thinkers
Key philosophers and their core ideas:
- Hobbes: Believed people are inherently selfish and require a strong ruler.
- Locke: Advocated for natural rights and the right to overthrow a bad government.
- Montesquieu: Proposed the separation of powers.
- Voltaire: Championed free speech and religious tolerance.
- Rousseau: Argued that the people should rule.
- Adam Smith: Promoted laissez-faire economics and the free market.
Quick Reference: Rights or consent equals Locke. Strong ruler equals Hobbes. Branches of government equals Montesquieu.
Atlantic Revolutions
American Revolution
- Caused by “Taxes without representation.”
- Heavily influenced by Enlightenment ideas.
- Resulted in the Declaration of Independence, Constitution, and Bill of Rights.
French Revolution
- Causes: Inequality among the Three Estates, national debt, high bread prices, and absolutism.
- Events: Storming of the Bastille, formation of the National Assembly, Declaration of the Rights of Man, and the Reign of Terror.
Tip: If estates, bread prices, or debt are mentioned, the context is likely the French Revolution.
Napoleon
A military leader who became emperor. Key aspects include:
- The Napoleonic Code.
- Centralization of government.
- Spreading revolutionary ideas across Europe.
- Limiting rights for women.
- His downfall was caused by nationalism, the invasion of Russia, and the Congress of Vienna.
Industrial Revolution
Definition: The shift from hand production methods to machine production.
Why Britain First
- Availability of coal and iron.
- Sufficient capital for investment.
- A large labor supply.
- A stable government.
- Access to overseas markets.
Effects
- Rise of factories.
- Rapid urbanization.
- Widespread child labor.
- Long working hours.
- Emergence of a new middle class.
Note: Multiple-choice questions often test the effects rather than specific inventions.
Social Effects of Industrialization
The early period was marked by harsh conditions, while the later period saw gradual improvement.
- Development of tenements.
- Unsafe factory environments.
- Low wages and persistent child labor.
- Formation of labor unions.
- Later reforms eventually improved conditions.
Second Industrial Revolution
Characterized by advancements in:
- Steel production.
- Electricity.
- Chemicals.
- Assembly lines.
- The rise of big business, trusts, and corporations.
Imperialism
Motives
- Economic: Need for raw materials and new markets.
- Political: Desire for power and national prestige.
- Ideological: Belief in Social Darwinism and the “civilizing mission.”
Tip: If raw materials or profit are listed as an option, select that motive.
Forms of Control
Imperial powers utilized various methods:
- Colony
- Protectorate
- Sphere of influence
Africa Under Imperialism
- The Berlin Conference divided Africa without any African representation.
- Leopold II brutally exploited the Congo region.
- Most organized resistance movements failed.
- Ethiopia successfully remained independent.
India
- Initially controlled by the British East India Company.
- The Sepoy Rebellion occurred in 1857.
- Followed by the establishment of the British Raj.
- Railroads were built primarily for British control and economic exploitation.
- The Indian National Congress was eventually formed.
China
- Faced a trade imbalance with the West.
- Involved in the Opium Wars, leading to unequal treaties.
- Suffered internal conflict during the Taiping Rebellion.
- The Boxer Rebellion was an anti-foreign uprising.
- The 1911 Revolution ended the Qing dynasty.
Big Connection Ideas
Understanding the causal links between eras is crucial:
- Enlightenment ideas led to the Atlantic Revolutions.
- Industrialization fueled the need for Imperialism.
- Imperialism, in turn, spurred nationalism and resistance movements.
- Absolutism ultimately led to demands for constitutional government.
Common Wrong Answers to Avoid
- Claims that Imperialism universally helped native populations.
- Assertions that workers’ lives immediately improved during early industrialization.
- Statements suggesting colonies benefited equally from imperial rule.
- Answers containing absolute terms like always or never.
If You Are Stuck
Ask yourself: Who gains power? Who gains money? Who loses control? Select the answer that addresses these shifts in authority or wealth.