Key Concepts in Medieval and Early Modern English Literature
Mead-Hall
A structure built by an Anglo-Saxon lord as a social center for his community. A lord would gather his warriors at this place to eat, drink, pass out gifts and treasure, and renew the oath-bonds between himself and his men. The story of Beowulf includes a Mead-Hall called Heorot that was so big and had so much laughter that the monster Grendel broke in.
Retainer
A group of soldiers who are the king’s favorites, and they are who accompany the king in battles. They swear devotion to their leader and fight boldly. The leader rewards his retainers with treasures, protection, and land. Wiglaf is the retainer of Beowulf who helps him in the fight against the dragon while all of the other warriors run away.
Scop
An Old English word for poet who was commissioned by the early Germanic kings to entertain them by reciting poetry. His art was directed mostly towards epic poetry (Beowulf), religious verse in epic format, and heroic lays of battle. The Scop usually lived in the court with the king and wrote to claim the victories of the king and the kingdom. He recited or sang his verses, usually accompanying himself on a harp or similar stringed instrument. An example of those poems is Beowulf.
Heptarchy
Refers to the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of south, east, and central England during the early Middle Ages, conventionally identified as seven: East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Mercia, Northumbria, Sussex, and Wessex. The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms eventually unified into the Kingdom of England. The term has been in use since the 16th century, but the idea that there were seven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms is attributed to the English historian Henry of Huntingdon in the 12th century and was first used in his Historia Anglorum.
Elegy
A sad poem, usually written to praise and express sorrow for someone who is dead. The purpose of this kind of poem is to express feelings rather than tell a story. It goes from the material to the spiritual and represents a new way of life, a new opportunity opened. “The Wanderer” and “The Seafarer” are examples of elegies.
Romance
A genre imported in 1066 due to the influence of French culture. It consists of a long medieval narrative in prose or verse that tells of the adventures and heroic exploits of chivalric heroes. It is literature for entertaining, and magic is an important element. Sir Gawain and The Green Knight shows the best idea of Romance.
Pentacle
A five-pointed star. Religiously, it has been known to represent the five wounds of Christ, the five joys of Mary, and the five virtues of knighthood: “generosity, courtesy, chastity, chivalry, and piety” (the virtues to which Sir Gawain aspires). This pagan, or religious, symbol therefore represents virtues and ideal characteristics of a knight. So this symbol was used to represent a knight’s particular religious beliefs for the purpose of protection. However, if you invert the pentacle, you obtain a pentacle associated with devils and demons.
Girdle
This is the present that Sir Gawain receives from the Queen on the third day, which is supposed to protect him from all harm. It’s like a magic object. Sir Gawain at this moment has two options: continue his belief in the Virgin Mary, but she is not going to save him, or access the girdle. So when King Arthur returns home from his hunting trip, Gawain does not reveal the girdle to his host but, instead, hides it. Sir Gawain is failing his beliefs and the court; he was the only one responsible for his reaction. At the end, Sir Gawain returns to Camelot and tells the story, and the King can erase all the bad connotations of the girdle, and this eventually becomes a symbol of honor.
Mystery Cycle
Theatre represented by normal people. Thus, for some people, it is only entertainment. It is of Christian inspiration and uses Biblical stories. It was celebrated at Easter to commemorate the death of Christ. It’s an opportunity for social gathering and demonstrated the union of the townsmen.
Chaucerian Irony
This is very common in Canterbury Tales. Chaucerian irony consists of describing characters acting in a contrary manner, which is the opposite of how the person should act. One major irony is Chaucer’s representation of the Church, who are all supposed to be holy and virtuous people. However, the nun, monk, and friar are all petty, worldly, corrupt, break their vows, and are in no way a model of holiness. Chaucer uses a lot of verbal irony when talking about them, saying they are “models” but really just being sarcastic. The Pardoner is perhaps the most intricate example of Chaucer’s irony.
Renaissance Humanism
An intellectual movement in Europe of the later Middle Ages and the Early Modern period. Humanist writers glorified the individual and believed that “man was the measure of all things” (Michelangelo) and had unlimited potential. The rise of Humanism was the relativization of human sciences and growing confidence in the natural sciences. Human nature can be understood from a scientific point of view and not only from a moralistic one. Education must be based on explanation and thinking, not indoctrination.
Utopian Thinking
Being idealistic and thinking in a way that reflects the idea that the world should be a perfect place. It’s the thought of a place where there would be no problems and that we would all live in peace, where nothing matters except one’s happiness. Moreover, Utopian Thinking tries to specify and justify the principles of a comprehensively good political order.
Essay
It’s supposed to be didactic. The image of England was so ideal, but there was great inequality. Many of the essays are an attempt to change England. There were critical, open-minded, and liberal books for that time. The essays are opinions about different questions (truth, religion, literature…). They are supposed to be as objective as possible. Example: Bacon’s essays.
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
An Arthurian romance written in the late 14th or early 15th century. Celtic inspiration. Takes Sir Gawain (SG) as the protagonist, one of the minor characters in the cycle. Presents him as a real character against supernatural enemies. Symbolizes the struggle between Good and Evil. SG is a more human and realistic hero than Beowulf. There are supernatural elements. SG is a normal man with very strong religious beliefs, and magical elements are part of the game of enemies. The Virgin Mary is supposed to protect him in battles; it’s a protective image. It’s told by a 3rd person character who we don’t know who he or she is. The narrator gives us the same amount of information as SG to himself. He used his wife to test him; everything was a game in the end. We don’t know SG is part of the game, only at the end. We are as ignorant as SG is. The narrator manipulates us; he doesn’t anticipate any information.
The Green Knight (GK)
Describing the Green Knight (GN), he’s all green. Someone who is bigger and stronger (colossal). This is the presentation of the natural elements. It places the emphasis on the physical appearance (heaviness). He mentions the giants; they belong to the monster (half-giant, full-fleshed). The GN belongs to that group as well. Still, these characters are giants; they’re elegant. It’s a knight, implying human characteristics. At the beginning, he appears to be a scary character, but he belongs, as SG, to the class of knights, to the aristocracy.
The Challenge
This is how GN mocks King Arthur (KA) and breaks the honor they should have. They don’t know what to do. He compares them with children or beardless boys. The GN should show some sort of education, but what they do is just the opposite, to mock him, to insult the king. From a certain point of view, the GN is right since KA is a young boy, but what’s true is that he’s insulting him. Arthur is not very happy, and what GN does is ask him. They increase the tension. They compare him to know how brave he is. Trying to provoke the king, insulting him, so the king gets angry from the answer he receives. Easy strategy. However, the king cannot play the game, so SG appears. King Arthur only appears at the beginning and the end. SG offers his life to play with the GN.
SG’s Self-Presentation
This is how SG presents himself. This self-description doesn’t correspond to a hero. He’s not strong or a clever person. It’s true that SG is the most strong and clever in King Arthur’s court. But he’s his nephew; he’s part of the Royal Family of the KA. SG is here anticipating what’s going to happen soon. He’s part of the game, but he doesn’t realize it until the end of the story. He recognizes his fault, moral weakness, but in the meantime, his weakness will be tested.
Knight’s Description
In a year, SG will die. The moment that happens, we will have to leave the 2nd part. SG is getting ready to leave Camelot and complete his faith. This is the only time the narrator stops to describe SG. It’s a moral description; the only long description focuses on his morality, his ideas. This is what the narrator tells of him. It’s full of symbols, and this description says the opposite of what he said before. He uses metaphors instead of saying things directly. No illness, he was a healthy man. He’s strong in battles, a victorious man. He believes in the sacrifices of his 5 wounds. He offers his life for the king. What’s common in the 3 metaphors is the number 5. Number 5 is a traditional and religious number with an important Celtic tradition. Virgin Mary as protection. In battles, he watched the Virgin Mary inside the “escudo.” His courage never falters with the image of the Virgin Mary in battles. They’re again 5. Cleanness means to be a virgin, no sexual relations. His Cleanness, his moral purity, and his obedience will be tested. He’s a “clean” man. Courtesy means obedience to the king, not only Arthur but also any king he should obey. Compassion means to help anyone who needs protection, protection of the weak. Pentacle. What we know is that SG is surrounded by symbols, all these beautiful ideas.
The Beautiful Queen
Introduction of the new element in the story. As SG enters the castle, he enters the game, the game of seduction. The most important element is beauty, her weapon to speak, trying to seduce. This attracts the attention of the reader. The Queen appears for the first time in contrast with the beauty of the Queen, but as an old woman (weaden). Metaphors to make the queen beautiful and to seduce SG. This physical beauty will be the test for the cleanness of SG.
The Promise or Game
The king goes hunting every morning; he promises SG to give him what he hunts. The exchange consists of any gifts SG receives; he’ll give it in exchange for what the king hunts.
The Seduction
SG and the Queen are alone in the room. It’s the moment of seduction, a very symbolic way. He’s following the game. SG should do what the Queen wants to do. This is the beginning of the game. She only gives him a kiss on the cheek. The only result of this first attempt is just a kiss, nothing more erotic. SG gives back the kiss, so the promise is maintained; he gives back what he receives. On the third day, things change; it’s the last day of SG in the castle, and the game continues, but this day is different. The Queen gives him something different; the present is the girdle.
The Girdle
This is the present that Sir Gawain receives from the Queen on the third day, which is supposed to protect him from all harm. It’s like a magic object; you cannot be killed if you wear this object. Sir Gawain at this moment has two options: continue his belief in the Virgin Mary, but she is not going to save him, or access the girdle. So when the King Arthur returns home from his hunting trip, Gawain does not reveal the girdle to his host but, instead, hides it. Sir Gawain is failing his beliefs and the court; he was the only one responsible for his reaction. The moment he has to choose, he prefers to act with instincts rather than principles. At the end, Sir Gawain returns to Camelot and tells the story, and the King can erase all the bad connotations of the girdle, and this eventually becomes a symbol of honor.
The Revelation
What we think is that this magic girdle works. Everything is happy, and the girdle apparently works. The GN asks what has happened in the castle, trying to seduce. You’re the most faultless; you resisted the kiss of my wife, but his loyalty was the only thing that failed, the girdle, but only because you love your life. This is the GN recognizing the value; they offered his consolidation; they understood him. Nobody knows if the girdle can work; the narrator doesn’t clarify if the girdle works. The purpose of the GN is to offer comprehension, which is the most basic need to alleviate the reaction of SG. His reaction is to get angry as he knows that the Queen and King have been playing with him. He chose to believe in a supposed magic instead of the Virgin Mary, not to give back the girdle to the King and to keep it. He abandoned his faith and faulted his court. This is probably a very exaggerated reaction from SG. He went against himself. All this happened because he wanted to protect his life, a natural reaction, but he blamed himself because he was the only one responsible for his reaction. After all, the roles have changed. SG returns to Camelot and tells the story, and King Arthur can eliminate all the bad connotations of the girdle. In the end, this story teaches something to SG; all his innocence makes him a strong man. He knows what it is to be against himself.
Beowulf
Beowulf is an example of Anglo-Saxon poetry that is distinguished by its heavy use of alliteration. Simply put, alliteration is the repetition of initial sounds of words. Imagery in the poem is vivid and often fun, and frequently related through the use of kennings. Put simply, kennings are compound expressions that use characteristics to name a person or thing. One of the most popular examples is hronrade. Literally, the word means “whale-road”; the kenning, then, is for the sea or ocean, a thoroughfare for the whale.
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (continued)
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is a fairy-tale-like story, full of magical creatures and supernatural happenings. This story involves a lot of hyperbole: exaggerated descriptions of people or things as the biggest, best, or fairest of them all. King Arthur’s knights are the “most famous warriors in Christendom,” and the Green Knight is “the largest” of all men. It’s full of praise for Gawain’s exceptional skill and virtue, the beauty of Lord Bertilak’s palace and lady. More importantly, he remains silent at crucial narrative turning points – for example, when Gawain hides the green girdle from Lord Bertilak. This silence means that the narrator avoids ever having to criticize his hero. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is a medieval romance. This genre of literature features adventuring knights, noble ladies, and often, elements of the supernatural. More importantly, the hero usually undergoes a process of self-discovery in the course of his adventure, which enables him to reincorporate into society as a better version of himself. Another important element of medieval romance is its exploration of the rules of courtoisie, or courtly behavior. Sir Gawain, for example, is known for his excellence in courtoisie: he delights everyone with his conversational skills, and, most importantly, behaves with impeccable courtesy toward ladies.
The Friar
Low class in the church, the poorest and most humble of the congregation. They are also called begging friars; they live off the charity of people. Experts in gossip and flattery. Arrange a marriage quickly. When a man and a woman are pregnant, the first thing they should do is arrange a marriage; there is again a contradiction of not supposed to do this. He had good friendships in his community. Well-off women in the town. If you pay, that means you are really regretting that instead of crying, paying is a sign of regret. A friar should be poor, but he makes money with his work; his money is just like a salary. This man contradicts the beginning part of his work. This is a way of criticizing the behavior of certain people who belong to the church, but this is the way of acting of particular people.
The Merchant
The merchant is important because he symbolizes one of the most important transformations of the age. This character is also typical of a new way of life that emerges out of the Middle Ages. This is someone with money, gold, family, but symbolizes the most material part of life. This is a man of a practical world, who deals with money. The first character who represents an economic and political world, he is a businessman. Chaucer introduces a contrast between the others. The other characters seem to belong to the past, and this is the modern one, the first modern character in the prologue.
The Scholar
Seems to be long in time. Someone from a very real-world life in the present with the mentality of the past, a man determined. He seems to be a fashioned man; he’s from Oxford. The horse gives the idea of being poor. Serious man. First irony. A poor man from Oxford is not supposed to be a poor man. This man looks rich. He looks like his job is living in the clouds rather than on the earth. Someone who prefers to have books than material things, he loves books, but he’s poor, not intelligent enough to make money but really interested in culture. Chaucer is not mocking this man; he identifies himself with this man; he dedicates his life to books. He’s a man who enjoys having books more than gold; he’s poor, but that’s fine.
The Doctor
Treating with irony. If Chaucer feels sympathetic with the scholar, the doctor is very unprofessional. Notice the contrast between the past and the present. Contemporary figure, his mentality is not from this. Ironic. Great doctor with knowledge of astrology. Chaucer describes him as a good doctor with astrology as he uses it for his treatments. Talismans are not medical treatments; they are part of superstition. He lives in a modern world, but there’s nothing modern in his treatments. He doesn’t look like a doctor.
The Knight
This character represents the middle class. The illustration belongs to the first edition, the time when pilgrims go to Canterbury. This is the first of the 99 people to go to the tower. The knight goes from Granada to the Algeciras battle, a knight who fights for the Christian faith. The description is very typical, a man who represents the perfect warrior, knight, man who is gorgeous, valiant, fame, honor of a warrior. Represents the very essence of a knight. It’s perfectly recognizable for the readers; he’s a figure that belongs to the past.
The Squire
The knight goes to Canterbury accompanied by his son, the squire. A man who fights to impress a lady, he’s a lover, his life not only fighting to conquer territory but also ladies. Thus is a younger knight; he fights, but he’s also a seducer of ladies. This description suggests a very different knight. This is someone committed to fighting, singing, dancing, and also a lover. He should be familiar with weapons, but also with music, literature. Young and strong man, the first man belongs to the past, and his son belongs to the present. There is no irony here. He’s a more human knight.
The Monk
The lowest position in the church. Close to poverty, humanity, he also begs for money, the most humble of the religious hierarchy. A monk should not have possessions; that does not correspond with his position in the church. He was a modern monk; he didn’t follow the rules of the church; he didn’t care about hunters; he prefers other rules; he doesn’t follow the rules he doesn’t like. Hunters are not pious men; he doesn’t pay attention to the rules that are not convenient for him; that’s an example of irony. Contrast of what a monk should do and what he does. A monk is not supposed to be someone who rides a horse and is not a hunter. Contradiction of the idea of someone who is big, he ate very well and a lot (irony). This looks like someone who enjoys life. Chaucer never evaluates this man. It doesn’t fit the image of a common monk.
Europe in the Late Middle Ages and Early Renaissance
Europe changed so much in the late Middle Ages and the Early Renaissance. These changes are related to an economic crisis which provoked a poor country with poor people. The aristocracy started to disappear, and people who earned their social status formed the middle class. There was also a religious crisis in the institution. The world cannot be explained only by the Bible while being humanistic; they believe the things they prove. Literature was affected by all these historical processes.
Three Important Aspects to Understand English Literature
- Not only Latin (the lingua franca was considered a cultural language) but also English.
- The complexity of literature was a mark of sophistication and literary value; the more complicated, the better the literature was.
- Innovation of the themes to write, from the devil to sexual awareness.
The Wanderer
There could be more than one narrator, as the poem fluctuates between personal experience and general advice. “The Wanderer” is an elegy composed of alliterative meter that focuses on the Wanderer’s loss of his lord, his subsequent grief, and his search for wisdom. “The Wanderer” is often coupled with “The Seafarer” in academic settings; this is likely because the two pieces have a lot in common, like their solitary speakers, the theme of the decaying material world, a melancholy tone, and the idea of finding security through religious faith. The Wanderer is now suffering at sea and dreaming of happier times. The narrative arc of the poem follows the Wanderer, a former warrior whose lord has recently died. He remembers the fealty he paid to his lord, the revelry of his hall, and his relationships with his kinsmen. He tried to find a new lord but was unsuccessful, and now he wanders alone, trying to gain wisdom from his melancholy thoughts. He describes his solitary journey in a wintry world, and he identifies with all lonely wanderers. In the second part of the poem, he contemplates more general themes about humanity. He tries to find the key to being a wise man. At the end of the poem, The Wanderer explains that he has gained wisdom from the experience of living through many winters. Finally, he encourages his readers to look to God for security on this journey of life. The poem has affiliations with Christianity and indicates welcoming in Christianity. Written in two different narrative voices. A main character looks back on the past and ultimately on the future. Nostalgia substituted by faith: the king substituted by God. Comforting vision of Christianity.
The Seafarer
A poem written in Old English that has an alliterative rhyme scheme. There appears to be only one narrator, a solitary figure who describes his own journeys at sea and then transitions into a discussion of the ephemerality of life on Earth. In the first half of the poem, the Seafarer reflects upon the difficulty of his life at sea. The weather is freezing and harsh, the waves are powerful, and he is alone. He contrasts his solitude to the life of land dwellers, which is much easier and more comfortable. In the second part of the poem, however, the speaker changes his tone and expresses his ambition to continue traveling. He stresses the impermanence of earthly life and the irrelevance of material gain. He encourages his reader to behave piously because Death will come for all men and, ultimately, God will hold every man accountable. The evocation of Christian themes is much more obvious in this poem than in “The Wanderer.” In “The Seafarer,” the poet’s exhortation for his readers to follow Christian values is unambiguous. Also, the Wanderer is forced into exile when his Lord dies, but the Seafarer’s exile is self-imposed. “The Seafarer” focuses on how the poem moves from the particular to the general, from the known to the unknown, and from the temporal to the eternal. The Seafarer describes how he has cast off all earthly pleasures and now mistrusts them. He prefers spiritual joy to material wealth and looks down upon land-dwellers as ignorant and naive. Written by one narrative voice. A main character looks back on the present and ultimately on the future. Faith as the only source of meaning in life. Radical vision of Christianity.
Sir Thomas More’s Utopia
Sir Thomas More was one of the most versatile and enigmatic figures of the English Renaissance. Utopia is a description of the laws and customs of an imagined society. His dramatic instincts led him to make it a dialogue, an argument between a character named More and a returned traveler named Raphael. Their debate focuses on a subject that was a trouble for More: should the scholar participate in government, or should he confine himself to the ivory tower? More is a very ironic and witty writer. Central to the constitution of Utopia is the community of property. No fundamental reform in society is possible, the reader is led to believe, until private property is abolished. Utopia was written and published in Latin; it was designed for educated readers throughout Europe. More’s sense of obligation to active citizenship and statesmanship finally won out over his monastic inclinations, and his rise to high office under Henry VIII was great. When he was required to take the oath for the Act of Succession and Supremacy, he refused. He could not admit that Henry was the supreme head of that spiritual body, the church. From the government’s point of view, his refusal was treason, and later he was beheaded. He was certain that he was not dying for treason, but in and for the faith of the Catholic Church. Years later, he was canonized by that church as St. Thomas More. “Utopia” was the ideal society in terms of moral conditions because of human belief in man’s capacity for good. In addition, in terms of material condition due to the rejection of private property. In Utopia, there is no private property, and everyone is rich, not in terms of wealth, but in terms of mind.
Beowulf (continued)
Written in the Northumbrian dialect by an unknown author. The author must have been Christian or influenced by the Christian religion. Takes place outside England, and its characters are not Anglo-Saxon. Presents a supernatural character against supernatural enemies. Symbolizes the struggle between Good and Evil. An epic is a long narrative poem dealing with the trials and achievements of a great hero or heroes. Beowulf represents the values of the heroic age, specifically the Germanic code of comitatus.