Key Concepts in Argumentation and Rhetoric

Posted on May 19, 2025 in Philosophy and ethics

Argumentation vs. Opinion Differences

Argumentation and opinion both involve expressing viewpoints but differ in their foundation and purpose. An opinion is a subjective belief reflecting personal feelings or preferences, often expressed informally and without requiring evidence. In contrast, argumentation aims to persuade through a structured presentation of logical reasons and solid evidence, such as data, expert insights, or statistics, while also addressing counterarguments to strengthen its case. The ethos of rhetoric and journalism underscores the importance of credibility, with rhetoric emphasizing the speaker’s character and values and journalism prioritizing objectivity, transparency, and accountability, ensuring both opinions and arguments are responsibly and effectively conveyed.

What is Argumentation? Definition & Example

Argumentation is defined as “To offer a set of reasons or evidence in support of a conclusion” (Weston). It is reasoning used to prove or demonstrate a proposition, or to convince of what is affirmed or denied (RAE). An argument is the expression of reasoning, either oral or written, which is part of a logical process to demonstrate the validity or invalidity of a stated thesis or proposition by linking it to a series of conclusions. An argument justifies a position by presenting premises that logically lead to a conclusion. Premises provide reasons and evidence, while the conclusion is derived through a logical process. For an argument to be valid, the premises must be credible, and the logical reasoning must be sound. A good argument ensures the premises support the conclusion effectively. For example: “Socrates is a man. All men are mortal. Socrates is mortal.”

The Three Elements of an Argument

The three core elements of an argument are:

Premises: These are the starting points of an argument, providing reasons or evidence to support the conclusion. They must be credible and relevant for the argument to be strong.
Example: “Socrates is a man. All men are mortal.”
Logical Procedure: This is the method or reasoning process used to connect the premises to the conclusion. It ensures the argument is coherent, consistent, and logically valid.
Example: Using deductive reasoning to infer that if all men are mortal and Socrates is a man, then Socrates must also be mortal.
Conclusion: Drawn from the premises through the logical procedure, the conclusion is the claim the argument seeks to prove or justify.
Example: “Socrates is mortal.”

Defining a Valid Argument

A valid argument has a logical structure where the conclusion follows logically from the premises, regardless of whether the premises are true. It consists of an assertion (the claim), rationale (logical reasoning), and evidence (proof). Validity depends on coherence and consistency in the relationship between premises and conclusion, ensuring that if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. For example, “My house has four double beds, and each bed can sleep two people; therefore, my house can sleep eight people” is valid. Validity is key to constructing convincing and reliable arguments.

Reasoning: Deductive and Inductive Types

Premises are sentences that the speaker uses to arrive at a conclusion. The conclusion is reached from the premises through a process of reasoning. That process of reasoning or inference requires that the premises are true and that they support the conclusion. For this, an adequate reasoning process needs to be used. There are different types of reasoning. The most basic classification distinguishes two types:

Deductive Reasoning: Uses the belief in a universally accepted premise or assertion to derive a conclusion for each particular case. It goes from the general to the particular, from top to bottom. The conclusion provides something independent of what is stated in the premises.
Example: All men have feelings. George is a man. Therefore, George has feelings.
Example: Dairy products provide calcium. Yogurt is a dairy product. Yogurt provides calcium.
Inductive Reasoning: You start from particular or concrete information to reach a general conclusion. Something is observed to occur over and over again, and through that repeated experience, a more generalized conclusion is drawn. The author assumes that if something has happened in all the cases known to him, it means that it always occurs. It is less logical than deductive reasoning and more probabilistic. People use it a lot to predict the consequences of our actions.
Example: I lent him 50 euros in November and he didn’t pay me back. I lent him 40 euros at Christmas and he didn’t pay me back either. A few weeks ago I lent him 30 euros again and he hasn’t paid me back. It’s time to face it, he’s never going to pay me back.

Syllogism Explained with an Example

A syllogism is a deductive argument that includes a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion.

The major premise makes a general statement that the author believes to be true.
The minor premise uses a concrete example of that general statement.
Using a proper logical reasoning procedure, a conclusion is drawn from these premises.

Example: All the books on that shelf are new. This book is from that shelf, so this book is new.

Common Literary Figures & Examples

Literary figures (or figures of speech) are rhetorical devices used to add richness, emphasis, or clarity to language. Here are some common ones:

Antithesis: Associating two opposing terms.
Example: “Love is so short and oblivion is so long” (Pablo Neruda).
Advertising Example: Punto Blanco Socks. “We dress the feet using the head.”
Paradox: Joining two contradictory ideas that can nonetheless be true.
Example: “The greedy, riches make him poorer.”
Example: “I only know that I don’t know anything.”
Advertising Example: SEAT 133, “a great little car.”
Asyndeton: Omitting the connectors or conjunctions that join elements in a sentence.
Example: “I think of you, your smile, your look, the chocolate-flavored kisses, you ran, you left, we lost each other.”
Paronomasia: Using words with similar sounds but different meanings.
Example: “In the good republic the priest prays, the farmer ploughs…” (Larra).
Advertising Example: Bombones Trapa. “Fall into the Trap!”
Onomatopoeia: Imitation of real sounds to suggest the object or action.
Example: “When I squeezed the plastic it cracked, indicating that I had broken it.”
Example: “Miiiiaaauuu! That’s how the cat greeted me.”
Synesthesia: Attributing to one sense qualities of another sense.
Example: “Sound scents, musical look.”
Example: “The bitter past I do not forget.”
Advertising Example: Sanyo. “The color can be heard better.”
Metaphor: Using a word with a meaning other than its own as part of a comparison which is not expressed as such.
Example: “Time is gold.”
Example: “The pearls in your mouth” (referring to teeth).
Example: “Your eyes are jungle green.”

How Literary Figures Enhance Communication

Literary figures influence the effectiveness of communication in several ways:

They add richness and embellish the text.
They give extra meaning to words.
They surprise by their originality and help to capture attention.
They reinforce ideas.
They give rise to new meanings in our perception of and relationship with the world.
They are signs (words or images) intended by the sender to help the receiver interpret the message better.

The Five Stages of Rhetorical Discourse

The five stages of rhetorical discourse, or rhetorical operations, are steps used to prepare and deliver persuasive communication. These stages have roots in classical rhetoric and guide speakers and writers in crafting impactful messages:

Inventio (Invention): The process of gathering information, ideas, and arguments on the topic. It involves discovering the best arguments for a case.
Example: Research statistics on deforestation, identify causes, and collect testimonials and benefits of reforestation.
Dispositio (Arrangement): Organizing the information into a logical structure, determining the order of the introduction, arguments, and conclusion.
Example: Start with a compelling story, present statistics and causes, and conclude with proposed solutions.
Elocutio (Style): Selecting the language, tone, and figures of speech that best suit the audience and purpose.
Example: Use clear language, metaphors (e.g., comparing trees to the Earth’s lungs), and a tone that resonates with the audience.
Memoria (Memory): Techniques for remembering the speech or content, though less emphasized today due to technology.
Example: Use the memory palace technique to mentally associate speech points with specific objects or spaces.
Actio (Delivery): The actual presentation, focusing on voice, intonation, rhythm, body language, and gestures.
Example: Maintain eye contact, vary tone to convey seriousness or optimism, and use gestures to emphasize points.

These stages ensure persuasive and effective communication tailored to the audience and context.

Plato’s Influence on Rhetoric and PR

Plato’s views on rhetoric remain relevant in modern advertising and PR, emphasizing truth, ethics, and the balance between art and knowledge.

Truth over Persuasion: Plato prioritized truth over mere persuasion. In advertising and PR, authenticity is vital, as misleading campaigns harm trust and reputation.
Example: Overstating product benefits can lead to public backlash.
Rhetoric as an Art: Plato stressed combining art with knowledge. Successful campaigns blend creativity with research and audience understanding.
Example: Environmental PR must use genuine data, not just artistic messaging.
Philosophy as Noble Rhetoric: Plato saw the pursuit of truth as rhetoric’s highest use. Thought leadership and CSR campaigns reflect this ideal by promoting knowledge and meaningful action.
Example: Sustainability reports demonstrate genuine environmental efforts.
Role of the Audience: Plato valued the audience’s ability to discern truth. In today’s digital age, empowered consumers fact-check and hold brands accountable.
Example: Scandals spread rapidly on social media, influencing public perception.
Ethical Use of Rhetoric: Plato advocated for ethical rhetoric rooted in knowledge and virtue. In PR, unethical practices like “greenwashing” damage reputations and invite backlash.

Aristotle’s Influence on Rhetoric and PR

Aristotle’s principles of persuasion remain central to modern communication, shaping advertising and PR strategies:

Three Artistic Proofs:

Ethos (Character): Building credibility and trust.
Example: Luxury brands like Rolex emphasize heritage and craftsmanship to establish credibility.
Pathos (Emotion): Using emotional storytelling to connect with audiences.
Example: Insurance commercials highlighting family protection.
Logos (Logic): Providing logical reasons through data, testimonials, and metrics.
Example: A tech company showcasing product performance features.

Five Canons of Rhetoric:

Crafting campaigns involves:

Invention: Researching ideas.
Arrangement: Structuring the campaign.
Style: Designing messages.
Memory: Ensuring brand consistency.
Delivery: Selecting platforms for communication.
Example: Launching a product with research (invention), structured messaging (arrangement), cohesive branding (memory), and platform selection (delivery).

Three Genres of Rhetoric:

Deliberative: Future-focused campaigns promoting actions or benefits.
Example: Electric car ads emphasizing sustainability.
Forensic: Addressing past issues through crisis communication.
Example: Explaining a product recall with corrective measures.
Epideictic (Ceremonial): Celebratory or commemorative campaigns.
Example: Honoring frontline workers in ads during crises.

Rhetoric vs. Dialectic:

PR engages in nuanced dialogues (dialectic), while advertising uses persuasive rhetoric to shape perceptions.
Example: A beauty brand promoting “natural beauty” persuades audiences to value the concept rather than asserting an objective truth.

Aristotle’s emphasis on credibility, emotion, and logic, combined with strategic structuring and audience engagement, ensures lasting relevance in modern communication.