Key Concepts: Bourgeois Republic, Marxism, Anarchism & Labor Movements
The Bourgeois Republic
After the fall of the Jacobins, the third phase of the Convention began. It adopted a new constitution that restored censitary suffrage. The Directory harshly repressed popular uprisings led by the most leftist elements. Napoleon Bonaparte staged a coup and seized power, initiating the Consulate.
Marxism
Marxism takes its name from Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, who described early utopian socialist thought and developed a theory that served as a program of action to change society: scientific socialism. Their body of doctrine had an initial reference point in the Communist Manifesto. Marxist theory was based on:
- The analysis of the past through class struggle.
- Criticism of the capitalist system based on this analysis.
- The need to overcome the present, associated with a future project.
Anarchism
The first reference was Proudhon’s anarchism. He believed in ‘stolen property’ and advocated a social system based on self-employment and the expansion of mutuality and Russian cooperativism. Bakunin argued that the revolution would be led by all oppressed sectors of society and would result from the spontaneous struggle of the masses against exploitation. Their goal was the destruction of the state and the creation of an egalitarian society based on free association of communes, configuring a libertarian anarchist model of society.
The First International (AIT)
The International Workingmen’s Association (IWA), also known as the First International, was created in London by representatives of British and French workers’ associations, as well as Italian and German political immigrants. It was organized in national sections and had a General Council headed by Marx, who wrote the manifesto and the statutes that established its basic principles. Agreements were adopted to boost worker mobilization in each country, and measures were identified that influenced the working class. These agreements did not prevent internal differences, which led to open confrontation between Marx and Bakunin.
Crisis and Dissolution of the AIT
The clash between Marx and Bakunin brewed a crisis within the AIT, which the Franco-Prussian War and the defeat of the Commune irreversibly precipitated. The rupture between the two sectors was formalized at the Congress of The Hague, where the majority upheld the decision to proceed with the formation of workers’ parties. Bakunin rejected the resolution, was expelled, and formed a new organization: the Anti-Authoritarian International. The AIT essentially exerted a moral influence as a forum for public discussion of ideas on the emancipation of workers and the development of a program for all workers.
The Second International (IWA)
The Second International was designed as an organization where ideologically homogenous socialist parties joined. The only resolutions adopted at the founding congress called for laws to protect workers, an 8-hour workday, and the abolition of child labor. The Second International created some of the symbols of the labor movement, such as the anthem and the creation of May 1st as International Workers’ Day. It promoted a great diversity of organizations, including the International Conference of Socialist Women.
Crisis and Split in the Socialist Movement
The gaps in the above concepts crystallized into two bets on what the socialist movement should be: revolutionary or reformist. Within parties, three groups formed:
- Patriots: war supporters who prioritized national defense.
- Pacifists: anti-war advocates who supported neutrality.
- Revolutionaries: war supporters who aimed to turn it into a revolution.
The Second Industrial Revolution
Improved diet and health, along with advancements, enabled a new phase of European population growth. Discoveries in medicine helped curb epidemics. Thus, the decline in mortality from infectious diseases caused decreased mortality and increased life expectancy. The birth rate remained high, leading to increased demographic growth. Imbalances in the distribution of wealth caused numerous population movements. Overseas migration consisted of British and Irish people who went to the USA, Canada, and Australia, while Spanish people went to Latin America.