Key Concepts and Events of the Age of Revolutions

Posted on Oct 30, 2025 in History

1. The Enlightenment

A) Origin

In what century and in what country did it begin?

• France, 18th Century

B) Characteristics and Definition

State three characteristics of the Enlightenment or give a definition:

• Anthropocentrism
• Humanism
• Scientific Method

C) Key Thinkers: Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau

• Montesquieu: Defended the separation of powers.
• Voltaire: Defended a strong monarchy which respects civil liberties.
• Rousseau: Believed human beings are naturally good.

D) Define Encyclopedia

A comprehensive work composed of 28 volumes (edited by Diderot and d’Alembert).

2. 18th Century Politics

A) Define Absolute Monarchy

The king holds all power, derived from divine right.

B) Enlightenment Despotism

Kings improve their people’s lives following Enlightenment philosophy, but without changing the fundamental political system.

C) Separation of Powers (Balance of Power)

• Legislative Power: Makes laws.
• Executive Power: Carries out laws.
• Judicial Power: Judges people according to law.

D) Struggle for the Seas

The struggle for control of maritime routes and trade.

4. Spain in the 18th Century

A) The Spanish War of Succession

The **Spanish War of Succession** (1701–1714) was a conflict that arose out of the succession to the throne of Spain after the death of the childless Charles II.

B) Treaty of Utrecht

Put an end to the Spanish War of Succession. Established the balance of powers to avoid hegemonic states and wars in Europe.

C) Nueva Planta Decrees

(1707–1714 and 1716) Suppressed the laws of Aragon, Valencia, Catalonia, and Mallorca and implanted the Castilian model.

D) Economic Reforms

Established the power of **free trade**, modernized agriculture and lands, and promoted science and university research.

5. Liberal Revolutions: Societal Shifts

6. The English Revolution

A) Causes of the Civil Wars

There was a **Civil War** because Charles I ruled without consulting Parliament. The conflict was between the people who supported Charles I and the Parliament.

B) Oliver Cromwell

Oliver Cromwell made himself a dictator with the help of the army after Britain became a republic ruled by Parliament.

C) The Restoration

When Oliver died, many people wanted the monarchy back. In **1660**, Parliament asked Charles I’s son (Charles II) to become king. This period finished in **1688** when Parliament forced James II to abdicate (The Glorious Revolution).

7. The American Revolution

A) Two Causes

• Discontent with the UK
• Enlightenment ideas

B) War and Revolution Break Out

• The Taxation Acts
• The **Boston Tea Party** (1773)

C) Independence

They declared their independence through the **Declaration of Independence**. The UK recognized this independence in 1783 through the **Peace of Paris**.

D) American Constitution

Based on the Separation of Powers:

• Legislative
• Executive
• Judicial

9. Napoleon Bonaparte

A) Napoleon Pacifies France

By suppressing his radical opponents.

B) Important Elements in the Civil Code (Code Napoléon)

• Transport and taxation systems were improved.
• The feudal system and all privileges based on birth were abolished.
• Guild restrictions were removed.

C) Economic Blockade (Continental System)

Napoleon believed that if he could isolate Britain economically, he could invade the nation after its economic collapse.

D) Napoleon’s Fall

He was defeated by the Allies at **Waterloo** and was exiled to Saint Helena, where he died in 1821.

12. 19th Century Revolutionary Waves