Journey Through History: Antiquity to Baroque

Posted on Nov 2, 2024 in Geography

1. Prehistory of the Modern Age

Prehistory

Prehistory spans from the emergence of humankind to the invention of writing. It encompasses the Stone Age and the Metal Age:

  • The Stone Age:
    • Paleolithic: Humans were nomadic hunter-gatherers, living in huts or caves, organized in tribes. They discovered fire, developed early beliefs, and created cave art.
    • Neolithic: Transitioned from a hunter-gatherer to a producer economy. Agriculture and livestock emerged, alongside new techniques like stone polishing and pottery. Humans became sedentary and organized into clans.
  • The Metal Age: Beginning in the late Neolithic, it’s divided into the Copper, Bronze, and Iron Ages, marked by metal tools and weapons, animal-powered transport with the invention of the wheel, social stratification, and new art forms.

2. The Ancient Age

From the invention of writing to the fall of the Roman Empire, the Ancient Age saw the rise of:

  • Urban Civilizations: Developed in fertile river valleys like Egypt and Mesopotamia. Characterized by agricultural surplus, hierarchical societies under absolute rulers, and advanced culture and art.
  • Classical Civilizations: Greece and Rome, whose cultural contributions became models for later periods. Greece, organized into city-states (polis), saw the rise of democracy in Athens. Rome developed a centralized republic, later an empire ruled by emperors. Society was divided into free citizens and slaves. Crafts and trade flourished with the use of money. Rome contributed Latin and Roman law, while Greek art also thrived.

3. The Middle Ages

Spanning from the 5th to the 15th century, the Mediterranean world was divided among the Byzantine Empire, Islam, and Christian Western Europe:

  • The Byzantine Empire: Formed from the Eastern Roman Empire, it withstood barbarian invasions. Its capital was Constantinople, and its golden age was under Justinian the Great.
  • Islam: Originating in the Arabian Peninsula, Islam is a monotheistic religion founded by Muhammad. Al-Andalus in the Iberian Peninsula bridged Islam and Christian Western Europe. Islam fostered a thriving economy, a society structured by religious differences (Muslims, Christians, Jews, and slaves), centralized power under a caliph, and advancements in technology and intellect. Islamic art featured arches and rich decoration, with mosques as the main architectural form.
  • Christian Western Europe: After barbarian invasions, the feudal system developed. Its pillars were vassalage (loyalty in exchange for protection), a rural economy based on the fief, and a society divided into privileged (nobility and clergy) and unprivileged (peasants and slaves) classes. From the 11th century, cities resurfaced, specializing in trade and crafts organized into guilds. The bourgeoisie emerged. Culture centered on the Church and religion (theocentrism).
  • Late Middle Ages: The 14th and 15th centuries marked a transition, with population decline due to poor harvests, wars, famines, the Black Death, and social conflicts. The economy and political systems faced crises.
  • Medieval Christian Art:
    • Romanesque (11th-12th centuries): Architecture featured thick walls, few windows, arches, vaults, horizontal lines, and dark interiors. Sculpture was rigid and frontal, while painting used flat colors and rigid figures.
    • Gothic (12th-15th centuries): Architecture emphasized large windows, pointed arches and vaults, vertical lines, and light-filled interiors. Sculpture became more naturalistic, and painting more expressive and natural.

4. The Modern Age

Beginning in the late 15th century with the fall of Constantinople, the spread of printing, and the discovery of America, the Modern Age ended with the French Revolution in the late 18th century.

Geographical Discoveries

Driven by the need for a new route to the Indies, the search for gold, technological advances (compass, astrolabe, cartography), a spirit of adventure, and strong monarchies in Portugal and Castile, Europeans embarked on voyages of discovery. Columbus’s voyage in 1492 led to the encounter with America. The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) divided the world between Portugal and Castile. These discoveries had economic (increased money supply, new crops, Atlantic trade), social (European emigration, demographic impact in America, cultural exchange), and cultural (revolution in geography, transfer of Iberian culture to America) consequences.

A Time of Change

  • Economics: Capitalism emerged, banking developed, and cottage industries arose.
  • Society: The estate system persisted, with the nobility retaining privileges, the bourgeoisie gaining wealth, and the peasantry gradually freeing themselves from feudal ties.
  • Politics: Authoritarian monarchies emerged, based on territorial unification, subjugation of the nobility, increased royal power, standing armies, control of justice and administration, and diplomacy.
  • Thought: Humanism replaced theocentrism.
  • Religion: The Protestant Reformation, initiated by Martin Luther, led to a crisis in the Church and the division of Christianity. The Catholic Church responded with the Counter-Reformation.

The Iberian Peninsula

The Catholic Monarchs united the Iberian Peninsula, excluding Portugal. The Inquisition was established, and Jews were expelled. Foreign policy focused on expansion in Italy, North Africa, and the Atlantic.

The Spanish Empire

  • Charles V: Inherited a vast empire, including Spain, American territories, and European domains, along with the title of Holy Roman Emperor. Faced internal conflicts (revolts in Valencia and Mallorca) and external conflicts (France, Italy, German Protestant princes, Ottoman Empire).
  • Philip II: Ruled Spain, American and Philippine possessions, and European territories. Became king of Portugal and its colonial empire. Faced internal conflicts (Moorish revolt, Aragonese revolt) and external conflicts (Ottomans, religious wars in the Netherlands).

5. The Renaissance

Developed in 15th- and 16th-century Italy, the Renaissance drew inspiration from Greco-Roman art and architecture. It embraced anthropocentrism. Architecture featured central plans, Latin crosses, regular blocks, classical columns, arches, lintels, domes, pediments, medallions, and niches. Sculpture used marble and bronze, emphasized freestanding figures, portraits, nudes, and ideal beauty. Painting utilized perspective, shading for volume, naturalism, oil, and fresco.

Renaissance Painting in Spain

Architecture featured Plateresque and Herrera styles. Sculpture focused on religious themes and polychrome wood. El Greco excelled in painting.

6. The 17th Century

Europe experienced a demographic crisis with famines, epidemics, wars, and emigration. Society remained divided into estates. Manufacturing and mercantilism developed. Absolute monarchies emerged. Spain experienced decline under the Habsburgs, with economic instability, expulsion of the Moors, the Catalan Revolt, and Portuguese independence. The Thirty Years’ War (Catholics vs. Protestants) ended with the Peace of Westphalia, marking the rise of French hegemony.

7. The Baroque

Emerging in late 16th-century Italy and flourishing in the 17th and early 18th centuries, the Baroque represented the power of absolute monarchs. Architecture used octagonal, elliptical, Greek cross, and Latin cross plans, Solomonic columns, and elaborate decoration. Sculpture explored religious and mythological themes, floats, equestrian works, movement, and high-relief figures. Painting featured diagonal compositions, chiaroscuro, extreme naturalism, aerial perspective, still lifes, group portraits, genre scenes, religious and mythological themes.

The Spanish Baroque

Spain experienced a golden age of art during this period.