José Ortega y Gasset: Philosophy, Historical Context, and the Concept of God
Historical Context of Ortega y Gasset’s Philosophy
José Ortega y Gasset’s philosophy emerged during a critical period in Spain’s recent history. This era encompassed the Bourbon Restoration, under King Alfonso XII (1874-1923), the dictatorship of General Primo de Rivera from 1923, the formal alternation between conservative and liberal parties, the proclamation of the Second Republic on April 14, 1931, the fall of the Republic, the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939), and the early years of General Franco’s dictatorship.
From the late 19th century to the Civil War, Spain remained a largely agrarian society, lagging behind other European nations. This was coupled with a significant social divide between the landowning class and a large population of workers and day laborers, alongside an emerging bourgeoisie.
Meanwhile, a series of major historical, political, and socioeconomic events unfolded globally during the first half of the 20th century:
- The rise of nascent capitalism in European powers and the United States.
- Increased political confrontation between the working class and the capitalist class.
- World War I and the Treaty of Versailles.
- The 1917 Russian Revolution and the creation of the Third International.
- The rise of socialist, communist, and fascist parties during the interwar period.
- The Great Depression of 1929 and Roosevelt’s New Deal.
- World War II and the subsequent division of the world into two blocs: NATO and the Warsaw Pact.
Cultural and Philosophical Context
This period saw the flourishing of several generations of Spanish thinkers and writers, including the Generation of ’98 (with Unamuno and A. Machado), the Generation of 1914 (with Pérez de Ayala, Gómez de la Serna, and Ortega himself), and the Generation of ’27 (with F. García Lorca and R. Alberti). Notable artists and musicians of the time included Picasso, Dalí, Miró, Manuel de Falla, and Albéniz.
Philosophically, the era was marked by various positions, including:
- Idealism
- Neo-Kantianism
- Existentialism
- Vitalism
- Historicism
- Positivism
- The Vienna Circle
- Structuralism
- Marxism
- Psychoanalysis
Ortega was particularly influenced by philosophical currents emphasizing historicity, life, and the irreducibility of human beings. These included phenomenology, existentialism, vitalism, and historicism, particularly the work of Dilthey.
Ortega’s Concept of God as the Sum of All Perspectives
While Ortega viewed knowledge as subjective and perspectival, he did not dismiss the possibility of absolute and total truth. He saw this possibility as an ideal, a goal that humans strive for but cannot fully achieve within the course of history, which is inherently unlimited.
The idea of reaching a sum of all perspectives is an ongoing process because the set of all individuals who could possess these perspectives is, by definition, incomplete. Ortega uses the name “God” to refer to a hypothetical subject who could possess this “absolute truth.” It is important to note that Ortega was agnostic, and his concept of God is more aligned with the philosophical concept of God rather than the religious one.
Reasons for Using the Term “God”
Ortega provides two reasons for using the term “God,” drawing from traditional Christian conceptions:
- God is often attributed with total wisdom or omniscience.
- God is considered to be omnipresent, existing everywhere. Since perspective is tied to a particular place, a being who is everywhere would possess all perspectives.
Distinction from Rationalist Conceptions of God
Ortega distinguishes his concept of God from the rationalist view, which posits a universal understanding of God that knows things as they are, independent of human knowledge. Ortega’s God, in contrast, *needs* all human perspectives because it is the sum of those perspectives. There is no divine perspective separate from human ones; God is the complex articulation and harmonization of all human perspectives, not a simple arithmetic sum.
God as a Symbol of Infinite Task
Ortega uses two images to characterize God as a symbol of the infinite task of philosophy:
- A vital and endless stream: This highlights the deep and boundless vitality of God, like a stream constantly flowing and looking forward to reaching the river.
- Infinite grids: This refers to the sum of all possible vital subjects. If God is the sum of all perspectives, and each subject possesses a unique perspective, then God is the sum of all subjects, and these grids are infinite because the number of individuals is unlimited.
The universe, when filtered through these infinite divine grids, becomes interpreted and authenticated, transforming into reality or vital fact. This interpretation is threefold:
- Cognitive (vision)
- Axiological (love/hate)
- Aesthetic (enjoyment/suffering)
Comparison with Malebranche
To further differentiate his concept, Ortega contrasts it with the Cartesian philosopher Nicolas Malebranche, a proponent of ontological arguments. Malebranche believed that true knowledge comes from understanding things through their ideas, which exist in God as archetypes. Thus, knowing things through their ideas is to know them in the divine way.
Ortega’s view is the opposite: it is God who knows things in the human way. The divine perspective is simply the sum of human perspectives.
The Call to Authenticity
The chapter, and the book, concludes with a call to authenticity, to be true to ourselves. This involves understanding the circumstances in which we live and taking responsibility for the historical moment we inhabit. Thought, while derived from life, is essential for understanding and solving the problems we face. It is not definitive but something that humans have developed slowly and with effort.
Entering the life of reason, understanding the importance of reason for life, is, in Ortega’s words, “the issue of our time.”