John Stuart Mill: Utilitarianism, Ethics, and Freedom
Historical Context
18th-century industrialization enriched society, establishing a new social order based on scientific organization and reason. However, industrialization also created inequities. Mid-19th century positivism emphasized reason and progress for societal change.
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
Influenced by Hume and Comte, Mill developed a comprehensive utilitarian philosophy.
Major Works
- 1843: A System of Logic – Examines induction and causality in empirical science.
- 1848: Principles of Political Economy
- 1859: On Liberty – Focuses on social principles of liberalism.
- 1861: Considerations on Representative Government – Discusses democracy and utilitarian morality.
- 1869: The Subjection of Women – Advocates for gender equality.
Empiricism and Logic
Mill viewed utilitarianism as a moral science based on logic and experience. Knowledge comes from sensory experience, not innate ideas. Scientific statements are generalizations from induction, leading to probable, not absolute, truths.
Ethics as Science
Mill considered ethics a science using empirical methods. Moral sciences include psychology, ethology, and sociology. Ethics, however, is an art, prescribing rules to achieve happiness.
Utilitarian Morality
Happiness, identified with pleasure and absence of pain, is the ultimate moral criterion. Mill refined Bentham’s utilitarianism by emphasizing the quality over quantity of pleasures, aligning with Epicurean intellectual and moral sentiments.
Happiness requires societal progress, improved conditions, and education. Virtue complements happiness by promoting the well-being of all.
Individual Freedom and Society
Mill advocated for individual freedom against societal pressures for uniformity. Freedom includes conscience, assembly, and lifestyle choices, limited only when harming others.
Internal sanctions, like moral duty, arise from education and sympathy, fostering a sense of unity with others. Individual happiness is intertwined with public happiness, justifying the principle of utility.