John Locke: Architect of Modern Liberalism
John Locke: Architect of Modern Liberalism (1632-1704)
Historical Context and Influences
To understand the motivations and intellectual development of John Locke, it is essential to first examine the historical context in which he lived. Locke experienced struggles similar to those of Thomas Hobbes. A defining experience that was instrumental in shaping Locke’s ideological thinking was Cromwell’s dictatorship. One of Locke’s primary objectives was to avoid tyranny (in the modern sense) and preserve individual rights.
Monarchy Restoration and Early Views
The monarchy was restored in 1660, with Charles II reclaiming the crown’s former authority over both church and state institutions. Locke’s early papers suggest he initially welcomed these changes, revealing sympathy with the concept of a state-appointed Anglican religion and indicating an identification with the orthodoxy of his youth. However, his views would significantly evolve in the following years.
The Glorious Revolution and Bill of Rights
During Charles II’s reign (1660-1685), Locke found himself fleeing to Holland after being accused of plotting Charles II’s murder. He safely returned in 1688, shortly after Charles’s brother, James II (a Catholic), was deposed and fled to France. This occurred during the Glorious Revolution of 1688, led by William III, Prince of Orange, who allowed all exiles to return to England.
The Glorious Revolution proved to be a pivotal, bloodless event, characterized by an act of toleration. It was followed by the Declaration of Rights, which soon evolved into, and was renamed, the Bill of Rights in 1689. This parliamentary act addressed constitutional matters and established fundamental civil rights for freeborn Englishmen. Key provisions of the Bill included:
- Freedom of speech
- Freedom of petition
- The right to own arms
- Prohibition of a standing army in peacetime
- Prohibition of cruel and unusual punishment
The Bill of Rights profoundly inspired the American Constitution.
John Locke’s Life and Career
Locke, unlike Hobbes, opposed the scholastics. Born into a middle-class family, he was part of the bourgeoisie rather than the aristocracy. His father, like Hobbes’s, was a lawyer. Locke was an Arian, perhaps influenced by Isaac Newton, and also served as a public servant.
Education and Intellectual Development
From childhood, Locke was exposed to an extraordinarily diverse education. He studied a wide variety of subjects, including literature, physical science, medicine, politics, and natural philosophy. He later specialized in medicine and chemistry, though his intellectual pursuits also led him to create elaborate essays containing theological arguments against both the Roman Catholic Church and Protestant reformers.
His career path shifted significantly when he met Lord Ashley, a statesman who came to Oxford seeking medical treatment and eventually offered Locke a position as his personal physician. During this period, Locke developed a profound interest in politics and eventually worked for the British government.
Key Government Roles and Exile
Locke held several important government positions:
- Secretary of the Board of Trade and Plantations (1673-1675)
- Secretary to the Lord Proprietors of the Carolinas (1696-1700)
For several years, Locke gained hands-on experience in public policy and politics, traveling extensively. He returned to England in 1679 amidst political upheaval as Charles II struggled with Parliament for control, leading to his subsequent flight to Holland.
Core Philosophical Contributions
John Locke is widely regarded as the father of modern liberalism, having laid the foundations for this influential ideology.
Human Nature and the Social Contract
Locke was an anthropologically pessimistic thinker, though slightly less so than Hobbes. He believed human nature was not inherently negative, but rather neutral, though capable of evil. Therefore, Locke’s perception of mankind, while still anthropologically pessimistic, was not as bleak as Hobbes’s.
Locke was also a contractualist, believing that a civilized society arises from a voluntary social contract. Individuals voluntarily surrender a portion of their freedom and liberty in exchange for protection and the establishment of societal order.