Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill: Utilitarianism and the Pursuit of Happiness
Jeremy Bentham: The Principle of Utility and Scientific Legislation
Jeremy Bentham, a prominent philosopher and jurist, aimed to establish a set of principles for scientific legislation based on the principle of utility. His approach was rooted in positivism and pragmatism, emphasizing experience and objective observation while focusing on practical applications.
Bentham believed that the sole purpose of morality and law is to promote happiness. He considered moral concepts like justice, virtue, and honesty as means to achieve this goal. To apply the principle of utility, he proposed a “felicific calculus” to measure the amount of pleasure or pain resulting from each action, aiming to maximize overall happiness in society.
Sanctions and the Felicific Calculus
Bentham identified four sources of sanctions, which are the consequences of human actions:
- Physical or natural sanctions: Consequences arising from natural causes, such as exhaustion from work.
- Political sanctions: Consequences imposed by the legislator, such as forced labor.
- Moral or social sanctions: Consequences arising from social interactions, such as social disapproval.
- Religious sanctions: Consequences imposed by a Supreme Being, such as feelings of guilt or repentance.
To determine the amount of pleasure or pain resulting from an action, Bentham proposed seven factors to consider, including intensity, duration, certainty, and extent. He believed that legislators should use these factors to create laws that promote happiness and judges should consider them when applying sanctions in individual cases, taking into account individual differences in sensitivity to pleasure and pain.
The Minimum of Defense and Democratic Governance
Bentham argued for a “minimum of defense” approach to government intervention, limiting it to areas where it is necessary to ensure security and freedom. He believed that excessive government control leads to unhappiness and advocated for economic policies that promote property rights and market freedom.
Bentham also advocated for democracy as the most appropriate form of government, as it aligns the interests of the rulers with the majority. He emphasized the importance of monitoring rulers, officials, and judges to ensure that laws contribute to the general happiness.
John Stuart Mill: Refining Utilitarianism and Individual Freedom
John Stuart Mill, initially influenced by Bentham, sought to improve society through moral reform. However, he later questioned whether the reforms proposed by utilitarians would truly lead to happiness. He came to believe that true happiness lies in personal development and the cultivation of a refined sensibility to beauty and human emotions.
Mill’s humanistic perspective led him to revise some aspects of Bentham’s utilitarianism. He argued that not all pleasures are equal and that some are qualitatively superior to others. He believed that the best pleasures are those associated with our higher faculties as human beings.
The Moral Science and the Rule of Utility
Mill proposed the principle of utility as the sole criterion for determining what is morally right. However, he advocated for a “rule utilitarianism” approach, which examines the rules of conduct that are most likely to promote overall happiness. While certain rules generally guide our behavior, Mill acknowledged that exceptions may be justified in some cases.
Politics and Individual Liberty
Mill believed that the state should promote the maximum happiness of its citizens while respecting individual freedom. He argued that the only legitimate reason for the state to interfere with an individual’s liberty is to prevent harm to others. By allowing individuals to pursue their own good without infringing on the happiness of others, overall happiness is maximized.
Both Bentham and Mill made significant contributions to the development of utilitarianism, emphasizing the importance of happiness, individual freedom, and democratic governance. Their ideas continue to influence ethical and political thought today.