Italy’s Political System: From Unification to the Albertine Statute
Chapter 5: The Political System of Italy
1. Historical Background
1.1. The Long March Towards Italian Unity
From the mid-nineteenth century, Italy was divided into the kingdoms of Sardinia, the Two Sicilies, the Papal States, and the possessions of Austria and the duchies under its influence. The liberal revolutions that followed the fall of Napoleon (1815) failed, ending with French and Austrian occupation until 1848, the start of the war of independence. However, the Risorgimento, a movement towards the formation of a national state and the struggle for freedom against absolutism and for independence against foreign occupation, had emerged. The European revolutionary wave of 1848 led to several constitutions, with the Statute of the Kingdom of Sardinia, called the Albertine Statute, being the only one remaining in force after the revolutionary ebb from 1850 to 1860.
This Statute was granted by Charles Albert of Savoy, King of Piedmont and Sardinia, before the revolutionary situation that threatened his throne. Promulgated on March 4, 1848, it adopted the tricolor flag and raised enthusiasm for the abolition of absolute monarchy. The king abdicated a few days later and was succeeded by his son, Victor Emmanuel I, who appointed liberal constitutional governments and center-left leaders, including President Cavour. His reign became a refuge for many exiles from other lands. The Piedmontese model grouped liberal aspirations towards unity, and as the unification of the Italian territories advanced along with the War of Independence, the Statute was adopted by neighboring regions.
1.2. The Phases of Unification
In 1859, Lombardy was annexed, with the exception of Mantua, along with part of the Papal States and the Duchies of Parma and Modena. In March 1860, plebiscites were held to join the Kingdom of Piedmont in Parma, Modena, Romagna, Emilia, and Tuscany. In October, Sicily and Naples, Marche and Umbria voted, while Nice and Savoy voted for annexation to France. The first Italian Parliament met in Turin in February 1861, and the Statute became the Constitution of the Kingdom of Italy. King Victor Emmanuel II was declared King of Italy, with Rome as the capital, though it was not conquered until 1870, when it was annexed along with the rest of the Papal States.
The entry into Rome, with the Pope taking refuge in the Vatican Palace, led to the Roman Question, concerning relations between the Kingdom of Italy and the papacy. This issue would not be resolved until 1929 and had political consequences for two decades, including the withdrawal of Catholics from politics and clashes with other countries.
The Albertine Statute remained in effect for a long time, until the Second World War. It was a granted charter, inspired by the French model of 1830, and established a constitutionally limited monarchy. It was a doctrinal text of compromise between royal power and parliamentary sovereignty, allowing various interpretations that prevented significant changes in political practices. The King was irresponsible and needed ministerial endorsement, though he retained powers such as the possibility of seeking a second discussion of a law, and was the effective head of the armed forces.
Together with the Catholic confessional, the Statute enumerated the rights and duties of citizens: equality before the law, individual freedom, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, private property, inviolability of domicile, legality of taxes, and so forth. Legislative power was exercised by the King and the two chambers: the Chamber of Deputies, elected by census suffrage, and the Senate, whose members were appointed. From 1882, the electoral vote was opened to capacity, and in 1913, universal male suffrage was established.
The electoral system was a two-round plurality system, except between 1882 and 1890, which used a ballot majority list. In 1919, proportional representation (PR) was introduced, which would be one of the defining characteristics of the Italian political system for almost eighty years, except during fascism, of course.
The Senate was a lifetime appointment by the Crown. Princes of the royal household from the age of 21 were senators, with unlimited seats. The Government introduced the custom of making proposals to the King, and Senators were required to be 40 years old and chosen from a number of categories (bishops, former ministers or parliamentarians, judges, etc.) with high incomes. Thus, the King and the Government controlled the upper house, allowing more freedom to act with the Baja, especially in its executive control functions.