Islam’s Rise and Medieval Europe: A Concise History
The Emergence of Islam in Arabia
In the seventh century, Islam emerged in Arabia. Mecca was an important religious center, home to the Kaaba, a black stone. Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570. At age 25, he married and had three sons and four daughters. The Archangel Gabriel announced that he was the new prophet of Allah and was to preach a religion based on submission to the divine will. He was persecuted for his beliefs, so he left Mecca for Medina in 622; this event is known as the Hegira. By his death in 632, he had conquered all of Arabia. The Koran is the Muslim holy book and contains the truths that Allah revealed to Muhammad, consisting of 114 surahs, or chapters.
- Ulema: Interpreters of sacred texts.
There are two main groups within Islam:
- Sunni Muslims (90%): Do not emphasize blood ties to Muhammad.
- Shi’ism (10%): Believe that the succession of Muhammad should be through his descendants.
The leaders are called Caliphs. Justice is administered by a judge called a Cadi. Conquered territories included Egypt, Syria, Iraq, Libya, Iran, and North Africa. They were defeated at Poitiers in 732. Later, they captured territories north to Constantinople, east to Persia and Afghanistan, and into Central Asia. The Umayyad family ruled until 750, when they were defeated by the Abbasids. In the ninth century, Islam spread through West and East Africa, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Central Asia, China, and the Asian steppes. They gradually lost control as some provinces became independent, such as Al-Andalus. In the thirteenth century, the Mongols conquered much of the Muslim lands. The Turks held power until the nineteenth century.
The Islamic Invasion of the Iberian Peninsula
The Islamic forces began invading the Iberian Peninsula by entering through the Strait of Gibraltar in 711. They defeated the Visigoths when King Roderick died in the Battle of Guadalete. Commanded by Tariq and Musa, they succeeded in conquering the peninsula within seven years. The peninsula became an emirate, with Cordoba as its province, governed by a Wali. Later, they were defeated at Poitiers, and the emirate became independent.
- 912: Internal disputes arose among the northern kingdoms.
- 929: Abd al-Rahman proclaimed himself Caliph, thus establishing the Caliphate of Cordoba.
The Caliphate of Cordoba (929-1036)
The era of the Caliphate (929-1036) saw significant progress. Al-Andalus was divided into Taifas, which were like independent states. In the thirteenth century, the Christians captured almost all the land. The only surviving Taifa was Granada. Trade flourished in the city center, and the Muslims introduced irrigation and new crops like rice and hemp. The diet was both local and international. There were three types of Muslims:
- Arabs: The elite, holding political power and social status.
- Berbers: Humble pastoralists.
- Muladi: Hispano-Romans converted to Islam.
Two types of non-Muslims existed:
- Mozarabs: Hispano-Romans who remained Christians.
- Jews: Involved in crafts and trade.
The Carolingian Empire and the Rise of Feudalism
Emperor Charlemagne was proclaimed in 800, preparing legislation and organizing the administration of the territory, divided into counties governed by counts. At his death in 843, his successors divided the empire into several kingdoms. Various groups attacked during the ninth century: Vikings in the north, Muslims in the south, and Hungarians in the east. To maintain allegiance, a system of personal relationships was devised: a vassal kneeling before the king swore allegiance and promised advice, economic support, and military aid. This was the origin of feudalism.
Feudal Society
Feudal society was structured as follows:
- King
- High nobility and high clergy
- Knights, nobles, and monks
- Artisans
- Campesinos (Peasants)
In feudal society, the king stood at the apex. The territories of a kingdom were often unstable. The king was considered primus inter pares (first among equals). The king had few responsibilities: to direct military campaigns, levy taxes, and act as the supreme court in legal disputes. Fiefs were privileged lands cultivated by serfs. The feudal lord possessed the right of jurisdiction.
The Church and the Crusades
Around the year 1000, the majority of the inhabitants of Western Europe were Christians. The Church held Christian ceremonies and promoted peace through the Peace of God and the Truce of God during times of war.
- 1095: The Pope called for the liberation of Jerusalem from infidels.
- XII-XIII Centuries: The Crusades took place.
The rules of monastic orders emphasized obedience, poverty, and chastity. The Benedictine order, founded by St. Benedict of Nursia in the sixth century, originated in Italy.