Introduction to Psychology: Key Concepts and Theories
Anxiety Disorders
These are clinical disorders that cause fear or nervousness. Avoidance of these uneasy feelings can lead to other clinical disorders.
Phobic Disorders
A type of anxiety disorder relating to having extreme fear or dislike to something or someone.
Agoraphobia
Fear of open or public places where help or escape might not be available. Examples include fear of crossing a bridge.
Specific Phobia
Fear of specific objects or situations. Examples include fear of mascots or water.
Social Phobia
Fear of being judged or embarrassed by others.
Panic Disorder
A type of anxiety disorder characterized by recurrent panic attacks and constant fear of having the next attack.
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
A type of anxiety disorder where a person feels afraid, nervous, and worried for the majority of their life.
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
A type of anxiety disorder where involuntary interrupting thoughts and/or urges are carried out by time-consuming, strange, and unreasonable acts and behaviors.
The 5 Axes of DSM-5
1. Clinical Disorder
2. Personality Disorder
3. General Medical Condition
4. Psychosocial & Environmental Problems
5. Global Assessment of Functioning
Post-traumatic Stress Disorder
A type of anxiety disorder where a person re-experiences life-threatening events in vivid flashbacks or dreams.
Somatoform Disorder
A type of anxiety disorder where mental illness can cause bodily symptoms including pain and have no actual medical cause.
Hypochondriasis
A type of somatoform disorder where people believe they have a serious medical illness despite repeated findings to the contrary.
Conversion Disorder
A type of acute somatoform disorder that involves actual physical disturbance to sensory organs.
Clinical Disorder (Axis 1)
A list of mental disorders that bring stress and weaken functioning. These are the most familiar and widely recognized.
Personality Disorders (Axis 2)
A list of personality disorders that usually arise in childhood. These disorders are more permanent and less responsive to treatment.
General Medical Conditions (Axis 3)
These are severe physical/body disorders.
Global Assessment of Functioning (Axis 5)
Overall level of functioning based on a scale of 0-100.
DSM-5
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, also known as the bible of psychology. It provides criteria for diagnosing mental disorders and abnormal behavior.
Dissociative Disorder
A type of anxiety disorder where disruption of perception is separated rather than integrated.
Dissociative Identity Disorder
A type of dissociative disorder where a person has multiple distinct identities or personalities.
Mood Disorders
A type of disorder where there is a significant disturbance in a person’s emotional state.
Major Depression
An acute form of mood disorder characterized by depression, loss of interest, and low energy that usually persist.
Bipolar Disorder
A type of mood disorder in which depression alternates with mania.
Schizophrenia
A type of disorder involving acute distortion of reality.
Positive Symptoms of Schizophrenia
Normal functions such as language and perception are distorted. These include delusion, hallucination, disorganized speech, and behavior.
Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia
Diminishment or complete loss of interest or pleasure. These include lack of speech and emotional expressiveness.
Disorganized Type Schizophrenia
Involves childish behavior.
Paranoid Type Schizophrenia
Involves delusion and hallucination.
Catatonic Type Schizophrenia
Involves disturbance in movement.
Personality Disorder
Mental disorders that involve long-term patterns of unhealthy, inflexible thoughts and behaviors.
Antisocial Personality Disorder
When an individual disregards moral or legal standards.
Borderline Personality Disorder
When an individual has difficulty developing a sense of who they are.
Narcissistic Personality Disorder
When an individual exaggerates a sense of self-importance.
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
A childhood disorder marked by inattention, impulsiveness, and low tolerance for frustration.
Autism
A childhood disorder where acute disability impairs children from communicating and relating to others.
Organic Mental Disorder
A form of decreased brain function due to medical illness rather than emotional illness. Examples include Alzheimer’s and Mental Retardation.
Erik Erikson
Formed the Theory of Psychosocial Development where personality develops in a series of stages and the formation of identity continues throughout life.
Theory of Psychosocial Development (Infancy to Middle Childhood)
4 stages include:
(1) Trust vs. Mistrust
(2) Autonomy vs. Shame
(3) Initiative vs. Guilt
(4) Industry vs. Inferiority
Theory of Psychosocial Development (Adolescence to Late Adulthood)
This is the search for identity and includes 4 stages:
(1) Identity vs. Role Confusion
(2) Intimacy vs. Isolation
(3) Generativity vs. Stagnation
(4) Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Identity vs. Role Confusion Stage
A stage of the Psychosocial Development Theory and usually includes changes in career or major.
Intimacy vs. Isolation Stage
A stage of the Psychosocial Development Theory and focuses on developing close relationships with others and oneself.
Generativity vs. Stagnation Stage
A stage of the Psychosocial Development Theory and has a preoccupation and worry about the next generation.
Ego Integrity vs. Despair Stage
A stage of the Psychosocial Development Theory and involves reviewing and looking back at accomplishments and mistakes.
Trust vs. Mistrust Stage
A stage of the Psychosocial Development theory and occurs from birth to 1 1/2 years of age. This is the most important stage where a child develops trust and a sense of dependency.
Autonomy vs. Shame Stage
A stage of the Psychosocial Development Theory and occurs from 1 1/2 to 3 years of age. This is where the child feels a sense of independence and confidence.
Initiative vs. Guilt Stage
A stage of the Psychosocial Development Theory and occurs from 3 to 6 years of age. This is where the child begins to assert their power and leadership.
Industry vs. Inferiority Stage
A stage of the Psychosocial Development Theory and occurs from 6 to 12 years of age. This is where the child gains a sense of pride through social interaction.
Cognitive Development Stage
The process where a child thinks and gathers an understanding of the world’s changes from age and experience.
Theory of Cognitive Development
4 stages include:
(1) Sensorimotor Stage
(2) Pre-Operational Stage
(3) Concrete Operational Stage
(4) Formal Operational Stage
Jean Piaget
Formed the theory of Cognitive Development.
Sensorimotor Stage
A stage of the Cognitive Development Theory and occurs from birth to 2 years of age. This is where the child combines senses with objects (mother). Activities include touching, sucking, and chewing.
Pre-Operational Stage
A stage of the Cognitive Development Theory and occurs from 2 to 7 years of age. This is where the child uses egocentric thoughts and develops their own perspective.
Concrete Operational Stage
A stage of the Cognitive Development Theory and occurs from 7 to 12 years of age. This is where the child masters the principle of conservation and reversibility.
Formal Operational Stage
A stage of the Cognitive Development Theory and occurs from 12 years of age to adulthood. This is where the child has a logical and more abstract understanding.
Information Processing Approaches
Developed by Robert Siegler and involves the way in which people take in, use, and store information. This process has no stages because it develops gradually.
Metacognition
An awareness and understanding of one’s own cognitive processes.
Lev Vygotsky
His theories stress the fundamental role of social interaction in the development of conscious mental activities. He believes that social learning comes before development.
Zone of Proximal Development
When a child can almost but not fully comprehend or perform a task on their own.
Scaffolding
Increasing level of support and difficulty.
Adolescence
Physical changes of puberty.
Puberty
Maturation of the sexual organs.
Puberty in Girls
Occurs at age 11 or 12 when menstruation starts. They grow faster and produce estrogen.
Puberty in Boys
Occurs at age 13 and is marked by their first ejaculation. They produce testosterone.
Lawrence Kohlberg
Developed the Theory of Moral Development which distinguishes right from wrong in moral behavior. This theory includes a 3-level sequence.
Theory of Moral Development
(1) Pre-Conventional Morality
(2) Conventional Morality
(3) Post-Conventional Morality
Pre-Conventional Morality
A level of Kohlberg’s Moral Development where our morals are shaped by the standards of adults.
Conventional Morality
A level of Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development where we understand the importance of moral standards.
Post-Conventional Morality
A level of Kohlberg’s theory of Moral Development where morals and personal judgment become self-chosen.
Adolescent Suicide
Third leading cause of death.
Early Adulthood
Begins around age 20 and lasts till 40 to 45. This marks the peak of physical health. At age 25, the body becomes less efficient and more susceptible to disease.
Emerging Adulthood
This period begins in the late teen years and extends till the mid-20s.
Menopause
This is the period when women ages 40 to 45 stop menstruating and are no longer fertile.
Andropause
This is the period in men ages 50-55 where testosterone levels decrease.
Developmental Psychology
A branch that studies the patterns of growth and change that occur through life.
Nature
The heredity causes of behavior. This is the genetic makeup that influences growth and development.
Nurture
The environmental cause of behavior. Some influences are family, friends, schooling, nutrition, etc.
Prenatal Development
This is the process in which an embryo or fetus gestates during pregnancy, from fertilization to birth. The three stages include..
(1) Germinal Period
(2) Embryonic Period
(3) Fetal Period
Germinal Period
The zygote is formed and lasts for two weeks. The placenta and umbilical cord begin to develop.
Embryonic Period
The developing organism during this stage is called an embryo. At this point, it is firmly attached to the uterus and lasts 2 to 8 weeks.
Fetal Period
This period lasts 8 weeks after conception until birth. The organs begin to function and any teratogens may affect physical function.
Conception
This is fertilization: when a sperm cell unites with an ovum in the Fallopian tube. This happens 14 days after the menstrual period.
Zygote
Cell formed from sperm and egg.
Embryo
The developing organism with a beating heart, brain, and other organs.
Fetus
Unborn human more than 8 weeks after conception (fertilization).
Teratogens
Any substance or behavior that can cause a birth defect. These are hazards.
Chromosomes
Rod-shaped and contain the genes and genetic information necessary for a human being. These are found in the nuclei of all body cells. There are 23 pairings, making up a total of 46 in the normal human body.
Genes
A unit of heredity transferred from a parent to an offspring and determines one’s characteristics.
Age of Viability
From 21-22 weeks after fertilization where lungs gain the ability to breathe air.
Self-Esteem
The part of our personality that includes our positive and negative evaluation.
Self-Actualization
What Maslow calls the ultimate in completed growth. This is when a person fully realizes their potential as a human being.
Abraham Maslow
The father of Humanistic Psychology and calls the greatest point in growth, Self-Actualization. He opposes Sigmund Freud’s theory of personality.
Self-Concept
This is central to the Personality Theory of Carl Rogers where our perception of who we are and what we are like are learned through interactions with others.
Carl Rogers
A Humanistic Psychologist who believes that for a person to achieve Self-Actualization, they must reach a state of congruency in who they want to be and how they behave.
Humanistic Personality Theory
The belief that people inherit goodness and their tendency to move toward higher levels of functioning.
Humanistic Psychology
Nonverbal experience and consciousness as a means of realizing one’s full human potential.
Behavioral Theory
The belief that both normal and abnormal behavior is based on past experiences and events and are also guided through the individual’s present environment.
Defense Mechanisms
Unconscious strategies people use to reduce anxiety by hiding the source from themselves and others.
Psychoanalytic Theory
A formal theory of personality developed by Freud that is divided into 3 levels of consciousness and 3 levels of mind.
Freud’s 3 Levels of Consciousness
(1) Conscious
(2) Preconscious
(3) Unconscious
Sigmund Freud
Created the Psychoanalytic Theory
Psychodynamic Approach
The idea that personality is motivated by inner forces and conflicts which people have no control over.
Unconscious
Levels of personality that contain memory, knowledge, beliefs, and feelings of which one is not aware.
Preconscious
Levels of personality that hold material easily brought to mind.
ID
A level of mind in Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory which consists of the raw, inborn part of the personality. This level uses the pleasure principle.
Ego
A level of mind in Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory which consists of balanced desires of the ID and the outside world. This level uses the reality principle.
Superego
Levels of mind which represent the rights and wrongs taught to us by society. This level includes the conscious.
Psychosexual Stages
(1) Oral
(2) Anal
(3) Phallic
(4) Latency
(5) Genital
Oral Stage
A stage of the Psychosexual Stages where the baby’s mouth is the focal point of pleasure. Fixations include eating, talking, sucking, and biting. This occurs from birth to 12-18 months.
Anal Stage
A stage of the Psychosexual Stages where the anal region is the major source of pleasure. Fixations include holding in poop and letting out poop. This occurs from 12-18 months to 3 years of age.
Phallic Stage
A stage of the Psychosexual Stages in the genitals. Fixations include identification with the opposite-sex parent and rivalry with the same-sex parent. This occurs from 3 to 5-6 years of age.
Latency Period
A stage of the Psychosexual Stages and includes unimportance to sexual concern but are able to become active. This occurs from 5-6 years to adolescence.
Genital Stage
A stage of the Psychosexual Stages where the focus is on mature, adult sexuality, and relationships. This occurs from adolescence to adulthood (death).
Psychosocial and Environmental Problems (Axis 4)
These include the actual problems and events that cause stress in people’s lives.
Abnormal Behavior
Behavior that causes people to experience distress and inability to function in daily life, also known as Insanity.
When does the Anal Stage Occur?
From 12-18 months to 3 years
How long does the Fetal Period last?
From 8 weeks after conception to birth
When does Early Adulthood begin?
From age 20 till 40-45 years
What are the 3 periods of Prenatal Development?
Germinal, Embryonic, Fetal
What age does Trust vs. Mistrust occur?
From birth to 1 1/2 years
What age does Autonomy vs. Shame occur?
From 1 1/2 to 3 years
What age does Initiative vs. Guilt occur?
From 3 to 6 years
What age does Industry vs. Inferiority occur?
From 6 to 12 years
What age does the Sensorimotor Stage occur?
From birth to 2 years
What age does the Pre-Operational Stage occur?
From 2 to 7 years
What age does the Concrete Operational Stage occur?
From 7 to 12 years
What age does the Formal Operational Stage occur?
From 12 years to adulthood
What age does the body become more susceptible to disease?
From age 25
What age does Identity vs. Role Confusion occur?
Adolescence
What age does Intimacy vs. Isolation occur?
Early adulthood
What age does Generativity vs. Stagnation occur?
Middle adulthood
What age does Ego Integrity vs. Despair occur?
Late adulthood to death