International Organizations and Martial Law in Pakistan: A Historical Overview
United Nations Organization (UNO)
Introduction
The horrors and devastation of World War II prompted a global realization for lasting peace. While the League of Nations was initially formed, it ultimately paved the way for the establishment of the United Nations Organization (UNO) on October 24, 1945. With a rapidly growing membership, the UNO stands today as the world’s largest international institution.
Objectives of the UNO
The primary aims and objectives of the United Nations are:
- Preventing war and maintaining international peace through collective efforts.
- Fostering goodwill among nations through economic, social, and political means.
- Guaranteeing fundamental human rights for all, irrespective of race, religion, language, or creed, and upholding human liberty.
- Cultivating friendly relations among people based on equality and self-determination.
- Preserving human rights and fundamental freedoms globally.
Organs of the UNO
The principal organs of the UNO are:
- General Assembly
- Security Council
- Economic and Social Council
- Trusteeship Council
- Secretariat
- International Court of Justice
Agencies of the UNO
Several specialized agencies operate under the UN umbrella:
- UNICEF – United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund
- UNESCO – United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
- FAO – Food and Agricultural Organization
- WHO – World Health Organization
- ILO – International Labour Organization
- World Bank
Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)
Introduction
Founded in 1955, the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is a significant international organization comprising developing countries that choose not to align with any major power bloc. With 116 member states, NAM advocates for the interests and priorities of the developing world.
The movement’s founding fathers were:
- Jawaharlal Nehru, Prime Minister of India
- Kwame Nkrumah, Prime Minister of Ghana
- Gamal Abdel Nasser, President of Egypt
- Sukarno, President of Indonesia
- Josip Broz Tito, President of Yugoslavia
Objectives of NAM
NAM’s key objectives include:
- Promoting goodwill and cooperation among Afro-Asian countries.
- Addressing social, economic, and cultural challenges faced by member states.
- Confronting issues like radicalism.
- Assessing the global standing of Afro-Asian states and their people.
Pakistan’s Role in NAM
Pakistan joined NAM in 1979. Despite actively participating in the first conference and attending the fifth as an observer, Pakistan’s membership was initially delayed due to its involvement in SEATO and CENTO. Following the 1965 war with India and the 1971 East Pakistan crisis, where Pakistan’s allies in these organizations did not intervene, Pakistan withdrew from SEATO and CENTO, paving the way for its NAM membership.
Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO)
Introduction
Established in 1985 by Iran, Pakistan, and Turkey, the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) is an intergovernmental regional organization dedicated to fostering economic, technical, and cultural cooperation among its member states.
ECO succeeded the Regional Cooperation for Development (RCD), which existed from 1964 to 1979.
In 1992, ECO expanded its membership to include seven new members:
- Afghanistan
- Azerbaijan
- Kazakhstan
- Kyrgyz Republic
- Tajikistan
- Turkmenistan
- Uzbekistan
Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC)
Introduction
The Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) is an international organization comprising 57 member states united to safeguard the interests of the Muslim world. The OIC embodies Islamic brotherhood and solidarity, representing the largest and most active platform for Muslim-majority countries.
Establishment
The OIC was founded in Rabat, Morocco, from September 22 to 25, 1969. The organization’s charter was further developed during the Conference of Foreign Ministers held in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, from February 29 to March 4, 1972.
Objectives and Principles
The OIC’s core objectives include:
- Strengthening fraternal bonds and solidarity among member states.
- Protecting common interests and supporting the legitimate causes of member states.
- Upholding the right to self-determination and non-interference in the domestic affairs of member states, respecting their sovereignty, independence, and territorial integrity.
- Promoting interstate relations based on justice, mutual respect, and good neighborliness to ensure global peace, security, and harmony.
- Supporting the Palestinian people’s right to self-determination.
- Strengthening economic and trade cooperation among member states, aiming for economic integration and the establishment of an Islamic Common Market.
- Protecting and defending the true image of Islam.
- Promoting scientific and technological advancement and encouraging research and cooperation among member states in these fields.
- Protecting and promoting the family as the fundamental unit of society.
- Safeguarding the rights, dignity, and religious and cultural identity of Muslim communities and minorities in non-member states.
- Promoting and defending unified positions on issues of common interest in international forums.
- Cooperating and coordinating responses to humanitarian emergencies, including natural disasters.
Organs
The OIC’s organizational structure consists of:
- Islamic Summit
- Council of Foreign Ministers
- Standing Committees
- Executive Committee
- International Islamic Court of Justice
- Independent Permanent Commission of Human Rights
- Committee of Permanent Representatives
- General Secretariat
- Subsidiary Organs
- Specialized Institutions
- Affiliated Institutions
Standing Committees
To address critical issues, the OIC has established the following Standing Committees:
- Al-Quds Committee (1975)
- Islamic Peace Committee (1976)
- Standing Committee for Information and Cultural Affairs (COMIAC) (1981)
- Standing Committee for Economic and Commercial Cooperation (COMCEC) (1981)
- Standing Committee for Scientific and Technological Cooperation (COMSTECH) (1981)
Martial Law in Pakistan
1. First Martial Law (1958)
Following Governor General Ghulam Muhammad’s leave of absence, Major General Iskander Mirza assumed the role of Governor General on August 7, 1955. Despite a revolving door of Prime Ministers, Mirza struggled to maintain stable working relationships. During his tenure, a new constitution was approved on February 29, 1956, and enacted on March 23, 1956, proclaiming Pakistan as an Islamic Republic with Mirza as its first President.
However, on October 7, 1958, Mirza declared martial law, appointing Army Chief General Muhammad Ayub Khan as Chief Martial Law Administrator. The constitution was abrogated, governments dissolved, assemblies dissolved, and political parties banned. Mirza later handed over power to Ayub Khan, who assumed the presidency.
Ayub Khan introduced the Basic Democracies system, holding elections in 1960. He lifted martial law in 1962, enacting a new constitution that established a presidential system, and was subsequently elected president. He was re-elected in 1965 in a controversial election against Fatima Jinnah. The declaration of martial law in 1958 stemmed from political instability and uncertainty.
2. Second Martial Law (1969)
In 1969, General Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan declared martial law, dissolved assemblies, and assumed the presidency after Ayub Khan’s resignation. He formed a Council of Administration and issued a Provisional Constitution Order. Zulfikar Ali Bhutto of the Pakistan People’s Party later took over as President and Chief Martial Law Administrator in 1971.
3. Third Martial Law (1977)
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The army staged third coup when General Ziaul Haq overthrew the Bhutto government and took over as CMLA on July 5, 1977. The federal and provincial governments were dismissed; political parties were banned; National and provincial assemblies were dissolved; the constitution was put in abeyance; civil courts continued to function as usual but fundamental rights were suspended.
On July 15, 1977, Justice Mushtaq Hussein of the Lahore High Court was appointed chairman of a committee to formulate election procedures and laws. Two days later, Justice Mushtaq Hussein also took over as the Chief Election Commissioner and announced that elections would be held in the first fortnight of October 1977 under the supervision of the armed forces and the judiciary. October 18 was fixed for the general elections and nomination papers were invited between August 7 and 18, 1977.
On September 21, 1977, General Zia issued a 15-point code of ethics to regulate the election campaign which started from September 18. The code prohibited all actions and deeds, including words, symbolic representations, which were likely to prejudice the solidarity of Pakistan and its Islamic foundations.
On October 1, the elections were postponed indefinitely. On November 10, 1977 the Supreme Court unanimously validated the imposition of martial law, under the doctrine of necessity.
In its judgement dismissing Begum Nusrat Bhutto’s petition challenging detention under martial law of former Prime Minister Z.A. Bhutto and 10 others, the nine-member court headed by Chief Justice Anwarul Haq observed that after massive rigging of elections followed by complete breakdown of law and order situation bringing the country on the brink of disaster, the imposition of martial law had become inevitable.
Zia’s martial law came to an end on December 30, 1985.