International Maritime Regulations: MARPOL, SOLAS, and STCW Compliance
1.The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78)
is an international agreement aimed at minimizing marine pollution caused by ships. It was adopted in 1973 and amended by a protocol in 1978, which introduced mandatory reporting of pollution-related incidents. The convention was developed following the 1967 disaster involving the tanker Torrey Canyon, which ran aground and spilled 120,000 tons of oil.
MARPOL consists of six annexes: prevention of pollution by oil, control of pollution by noxious liquid substances in bulk, prevention of pollution by harmful substances carried in packaged form, prevention of sewage pollution from ships, prevention of garbage pollution, and prevention of air pollution from ships. The convention also designates special areas where stricter rules apply due to environmental sensitivity and shipping density. These areas include the Mediterranean Sea, Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Red Sea, the Gulf area (Persian Gulf), Gulf of Aden, North-West European waters, Oman Gulf, Antarctic area, and Southern and South African waters. Additionally, the Polar Code, effective from January 1, 2017, extends similar protections to Arctic waters, covering pollution from oil, sewage, garbage, and ballast water.
2.Inspection and certification under Annex I of the MARPOL 73/78 Convention involves the issuance of the IOPP certificate (International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate).
This international certificate confirms that a vessel complies with the requirements to prevent marine pollution by oil as outlined in Annex I of MARPOL. The IOPP certificate is issued to oil tankers with a gross tonnage of 150 tons or more, and to other ships of 400 gross tons or more. There are two forms of the certificate: Form A for ships other than oil tankers, and Form B for oil tankers. The certification process includes several types of surveys: an initial survey conducted during ship construction, a renewal survey every five years, an intermediate survey (which includes inspection of the Oil Discharge Monitoring Equipment and other systems), an annual survey, and an additional survey if significant repairs or modifications have been made.
3. Oil discharge conditions from tankers are regulated by Rule 34 of Annex I of MARPOL
In general, any discharge of oil or oily mixtures from oil tankers into the sea is prohibited, except under strict conditions: the tanker must be outside special areas, underway, at least 50 nautical miles from the nearest land, and the instantaneous rate of discharge must not exceed 30 liters per nautical mile. Additionally, the total volume discharged must not exceed 1/30,000 of the total cargo for new tankers, or 1/15,000 for older ones. The vessel must also be equipped with an automatic monitoring, recording, and discharge control system, as well as a slop tank. In special areas, any discharge of oil or oily mixtures is completely prohibited. Oil residues must be retained on board or discharged to reception facilities. These restrictions do not apply to clean ballast water (with oil content below 15 ppm) or segregated ballast from fuel or cargo systems. Special areas include the Mediterranean Sea, Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Red Sea, the Persian Gulf area, Gulf of Aden, North-West European waters, Oman Gulf, Antarctic region, and Southern and South African waters.
4.Discharge of oily water in special areas is strictly prohibited
All oily residues must be retained on board or discharged to reception facilities. This rule does not apply to clean ballast water with an oil content not exceeding 15 ppm, or to segregated ballast from fuel or cargo systems. Ships must be equipped with oil filtering equipment that includes an automatic stopping device, which halts discharge when the oil content exceeds 15 ppm.
5.The Ballast Water Management (BWM) Convention, effective from September 8, 2017, aims to prevent the spread of harmful aquatic species. Ships must have a BWM Plan, a Ballast Water Record Book, and a valid certificate. There are two standards: D1 – ballast exchange at least 200 nautical miles from shore and 200 meters deep (95% volume), and D2 – treatment to remove microorganisms using chemicals or UV. Port state control checks certificates, records, and may test the water.
6. MARPOL 73/78 Annex II – Regulations on Discharge of Noxious Liquid Substances in Bulk
Harmful liquids are defined by the IBC Code (Chapters 17/18) and divided into categories X, Y, Z, and OS (Other Substances).
X:
Substances posing a major hazard if discharged; discharge is prohibited.
Y:
Substances posing a hazard; discharge is restricted by quality and quantity.
Z:
Substances posing minor hazard; discharge restrictions are less strict.
OS:
Other substances not harmful; discharge permitted.
Discharge conditions: Speed ≥ 7 knots, Below waterline, ≥ 12 miles from shore, Depth ≥ 25 meters
For category X, wash water must be offloaded until concentration ≤ 0.1% and tank empty; then discharge allowed per standards.
Special area: Antarctica (south of 60° S). Polar Code effective from Jan 1, 2017.
7.MARPOL 73/78 Annex II – Regulations for the Discharge of Harmful Substances
This annex sets the rules and conditions controlling the discharge of noxious liquid substances carried in bulk to prevent pollution of the marine environment. It classifies harmful substances, specifies discharge restrictions, and outlines special areas where stricter controls apply.
8. MARPOL 73/78 Annex IV – Regulations for the Discharge of Sewage from Ships
This regulation, effective since 2003 (older ships before 2003, newer after), governs sewage discharge from ships. Sewage includes waste water from toilets, galleys, hospitals, animals, showers, and other waste mixed with these. Sewage is divided into two groups: 1)
Treated (disinfected)
– may be discharged not closer than 3 miles from shore through an administration-approved system. 2)
Untreated (not disinfected)
– discharge allowed not closer than 12 miles from shore. Discharge must be gradual, not instant, and the ship must be underway at a speed of at least 4 knots. To prevent pollution, ships must have biological and chemical sewage treatment systems (chlorine limit: 5 mg/l at discharge). Ships also require an ISPP certificate (International Sewage Pollution Prevention)
, valid for 5 years. Piping must have an outer diameter of 210 mm with standard flange sizes; for oil pipelines, 215 mm. Since January 1, 2013, the Baltic Sea is designated a special area under Annex IV for passenger ships.
9. MARPOL 73/78 Annex V – Garbage Categories There are 9 garbage categories labeled A to I:
A – Plastic:
Non-biodegradable, lasts up to 450 years. Discharge prohibited.
B – Food wastes:
Chopped – discharge in special areas not closer than 12 miles, open sea not closer than 3 miles. Non-chopped – discharge prohibited in special areas, open sea not closer than 12 miles.
C – Domestic wastes:
Paper, rags, glass, metal, lamps, batteries. Discharge banned since 2013.
D – Cooking oil:
Stored separately, logged, handed over ashore. Discharge and burning prohibited.
E – Incinerator ash:
Discharge prohibited.
F – Operational wastes:
Generated during cargo handling (including oily rags).
G – Cargo residues:
Non-hazardous residues may be discharged not closer than 12 miles. Check company policy.
H – Animal carcasses:
Disposal allowed at depth of at least 100 meters (for livestock carriers).
I – Fishing gear:
Discharge prohibited.
F (Cleaning agents):
If certified non-hazardous, discharge not closer than 12 miles; otherwise prohibited.
10. MARPOL 73/78 Annex V – Regulations for Garbage Discharge from Ships
Food waste discharge is allowed only through a system with a 25 mm screen. There are 8 designated special areas with stricter rules:
Mediterranean Sea, Baltic Sea, Red Sea, Gulf Areas (Persian Gulf), Black Sea, Wider Caribbean Region (including the Gulf of Mexico), North Sea, Antarctica
11. The Garbage Record Book applies to ships with a gross tonnage of 100,000 or more or ships carrying 15 or more people
. It records all garbage handling operations, which must be signed by a member of the ship’s command staff. Entries are made in French, English, and Spanish. The book is filled out in the following cases: 1) when garbage is discharged overboard, 2) when garbage is delivered to a reception facility or another ship, 3) when garbage is incinerated, and 4) when garbage is discharged due to unforeseen or emergency situations. The record book must be kept for two years after the last entry.
12. MARPOL 73/78 Annex VI regulates the prevention of air pollution from ships, focusing on ozone-depleting substances (Rule 12), nitrogen oxides (NOx)
, sulfur oxides (SOx)
, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) for tankers (Rule 15). Rule 16 covers fuel combustion quality, and Rule 18 addresses liquid fuel quality. Ships must hold IAPP (International Air Pollution Prevention) and EIAPP (Engine International Air Pollution Prevention) certificates to ensure all systems, equipment, and materials comply with Annex I requirements. These certificates are issued to tankers with a gross tonnage of 150,000 or more and other ships of 400,000 gross tonnage or above. There are two certificate types: A (non-tankers) and B (tankers). Surveys include initial (upon shipbuilding), renewal (every 5 years), intermediate (exhaust gas check), annual, and additional (after repairs).
13
According to MARPOL 73/78 Annex VI, the IMO has designated Emission Control Areas (ECAs) to limit air pollutant emissions.
These ECAs include the Baltic Sea (restricted for SOx emissions), the North Sea (SOx), and areas in the United States where restrictions apply to SOx, NOx, and particulate matter (PM). The U.S. ECA covers Canada, the northern states of the U.S., California, the Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and the Dominican Republic. Particulate matter (PM) consists of solid particles formed from sulfates and nitrates.
14. Ozone is a form of oxygen (O3) formed in the atmosphere by the reaction
O2 → O + O, then O + O2 → O3. The ozone layer is located in the stratosphere about 20–25 km above the Earth’s surface and is approximately 3 mm thick. It is destroyed by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which are organic compounds containing chlorine and fluorine. On ships, CFCs (freons) are used in air conditioners, refrigerators, and fire-fighting systems. While inside equipment, they do not harm the environment. The chemical reactions release chlorine atoms (Cl), which are strong oxidizers that break down ozone molecules. The ozone layer protects us from harmful ultraviolet rays. According to MARPOL Annex VI, Rule 12, the use of ozone-depleting substances is prohibited except for new equipment containing hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) until January 1, 2020. Ships must maintain an ODS (Ozone Depleting Substances) record book documenting repairs, inspections, and leaks. For example, the use of Freon-22 is restricted under this rule.
15. MARPOL 73/78 Annex VI, Regulation 16 covers incineration on ships
Incinerators are required equipment for burning waste onboard and must have an IMO Type Approval Certificate if installed by January 1, 2000. The incinerator must be approved by the Administration. All incineration of sludge must be recorded in the Oil Record Book under category C. Burning of the following is prohibited: 1) cargo residues covered under Annexes I, II, and III; 2) PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), such as solid plastics like linoleum; 3) garbage containing heavy metals like mercury or tungsten; 4) cleaned oil products containing halogens (chlorine, bromine, iodine, fluorine) — cargo descriptions must be checked to verify; 5) sludge and bilge burning is only allowed outside ports, harbors, and estuaries.
16. MARPOL 73/78 Annex VI Regulation 14 addresses the prevention of air pollution from ships by limiting sulfur content in marine fuels.
The sulfur content in fuel oil must not exceed 3.5% globally. In Emission Control Areas (ECAs), such as the Baltic Sea, North American coastal waters, the North Sea, and the Caribbean Sea, the sulfur limit is stricter, not exceeding 0.1%. Before entering an ECA (also called SOx Emission Control Area or SIKA), ships must allow sufficient time to flush the fuel system, switch to low-sulfur fuel tanks, and record the volume and sulfur content of low-sulfur fuel in each tank in the Engine Logbook, with the position recorded on the bridge. The IMO has established these ECA regulations, while China has set a regional requirement for the Yellow Sea with a sulfur limit of 0.5% since 2016.
17. MARPOL 73/78 Annex VI Regulation 13 addresses the control of nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions from ship engines to prevent air pollution.
NOx contributes to acid rain, photochemical smog, eutrophication, and ozone layer depletion. The rules apply to engines with power of 130 kW or more installed on ships built on or after January 1, 2000, excluding emergency engines, lifeboats, and harbor vessels. IMO has planned NOx emission limits in three tiers: Tier 1 for ships built 2000–2011, Tier 2 for 2011–2016, and Tier 3 from 2016 onward, with progressively stricter limits reducing NOx emissions by about 1.5 times from Tier 1 to Tier 2, and about five times for Tier 3 (not yet common). NOx forms when nitrogen (N2, 78% of air) reacts with oxygen (O2, 21%) in combustion chambers (N2 + O2 → 2NO), which then oxidizes to nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in the atmosphere. NOx reacts with water vapor to form acid rain (HNO3 and HNO2).
18. The Oil Record Book applies to every oil tanker of 150 gross tons and above, and every ship of 400 gross tons and above that is not an oil tanker
. Part 1 covers machinery space operations, while Part 2, required only for oil tankers of 150 gross tons and above, covers ballast and cargo operations. Entries are made for each tank after oil-related operations. Each operation has a code and number, followed by the operation’s name. Categories include: A – ballast uptake and discharge; B – cargo-ballast operations such as ballast uptake, ballast tank cleaning, cargo loading, ballast discharge; C – sludge; D – bilge; E – bilge water; F – ODME system; G – emergency situations; H – bunkering.
19. The Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan (SOPEP), required under MARPOL Annex I, Regulation 37, applies to all oil tankers of 150 gross tons and above and other ships of 400 gross tons and above. The plan must be approved by the Administration and written in the language understood by the ship’s command crew. SOPEP outlines clear duties for each crew member during an oil pollution incident (e.G., preparing absorbent materials, shovels, and booms).
20.MARPOL 73/78 Annex I Regulation 15 sets conditions for the discharge of oily mixtures from ships of 400 gross tons and above.
Discharge of oil or oily bilge water into the sea is prohibited except when: 1) the ship is outside special areas; 2) the ship is en route; 3) the oil content in the discharge does not exceed 15 parts per million (ppm) without dilution; 4) the ship has an operational oil discharge monitoring and control system and filtering equipment. In special areas, discharge of oil or oily water is strictly prohibited, and oil residues must be retained on board or disposed of ashore. Exceptions apply only to discharges of clean water (15 ppm) or segregated ballast from fuel or cargo systems. The special areas under MARPOL include: the Mediterranean Sea, Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Gulf of Aden, North-West European Waters, Oman Gulf, Southern African Waters, and Antarctic Area.
21.The 1972 London Convention aims to prevent marine pollution by dumping wastes from ships, aircraft, and offshore structures
. It bans or restricts dumping certain harmful substances and requires permits for others. Normal operational discharges are regulated by MARPOL, not this Convention.In 1996, a Protocol was adopted to strengthen the rules, banning all dumping except specific materials like dredged soil, sewage sludge, fish waste, vessels, inert geological materials, and CO₂ from carbon capture. It also prohibits burning waste at sea. Exceptions are only allowed for safety emergencies.The Convention started in 1975, and the Protocol came into force in 2006.
22. The 1969 International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage was adopted after the ‘Torrey Canyon’ tanker accident near the UK and France and came into force in 1975. It significantly increased shipowners’ liability for oil pollution damage, making them strictly liable even if not at fault. Liability is limited to 2,000 gold francs per ton of ship capacity, capped at 210 million gold francs. Shipowners must insure this liability, confirmed by a certificate issued by the flag state. Without insurance, ships carrying over 2,000 tons of oil cannot enter ports. Exemptions apply for pollution caused by war or natural disasters. Compensation covers reasonable environmental restoration costs, with a compensation fund established due to potentially high damages. Fines are calculated in gold francs.
23. International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (CLC), 1969 establishes the civil liability of shipowners for pollution damage caused by oil at sea. The liability is strict, meaning the owner is liable regardless of fault, except in certain cases (e.G., acts of war, natural disasters, etc.). The Convention applies to all commercial ships carrying more than 2,000 tonnes of oil and requires compulsory insurance or other financial security, certified by the flag state. Liability covers pollution incidents within a member state’s territory, territorial sea, and Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). The maximum liability limits are as follows: up to 5,000 GT – 4.51 million SDR; from 5,000 to 140,000 GT – 4.51 million SDR plus 631 SDR for each tonne over 5,000; over 140,000 GT – up to 89.77 million SDR. If the pollution was caused deliberately or by gross negligence of the owner, liability cannot be limited. The main aim of the Convention is to ensure fair compensation for damage caused by oil spills from tankers.
24.The U.S. Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA-90)
was enacted following the Exxon Valdez disaster in 1989 and sets strict requirements for oil spill prevention, preparedness, and response in U.S. Waters. It applies to all vessels with a gross tonnage of 300 GT or more that intend to enter U.S. Waters. Ships must have a Vessel Response Plan (VRP)
, which is based on SOPEP and includes emergency actions, designated responsible personnel, equipment, cooperation with contracted response organizations, and reporting procedures.
OPA-90 also establishes the shipowner’s civil liability for damages caused by pollution and requires financial security to cover such incidents.
25. According to SOLAS 1974 Convention, Chapter III, Part C, Regulation 29, steering gear systems on board ships must meet certain requirements.
The main steering gear must have adequate strength and be capable of controlling the ship at its maximum service ahead speed. It must be able to turn the rudder from 35° on one side to 35° on the other side at maximum draught and speed within no more than 28 seconds. It must also be powered by an energy source if needed to meet these requirements, especially if the rudder stock in the tiller area exceeds 120 mm in diameter (excluding ice reinforcement). The design must prevent damage when operating astern at maximum speed, though actual testing under those conditions is not required. The auxiliary (emergency) steering gear must also be strong enough to control the ship at a speed that ensures maneuverability and must be quickly activated in emergencies. It should be capable of moving the rudder from 15° on one side to 15° on the other side in no more than 60 seconds at half of the ship’s maximum service speed and full draught.
26.SOLAS 74 – Additional Requirements for Electrical and Electrohydraulic Steering Gear
For new Class B, C, and D ships, and existing Class B ships, electrical and electrohydraulic steering gear systems must have performance indicators installed both on the navigation bridge and in the steering gear compartment. Each system must include at least two separate power supply circuits, fed directly from the main switchboard. One of these may be supplied from the emergency switchboard. The steering system must have sufficient capacity to power all connected motors operating simultaneously. There must be visual and audible alarms located in a prominent place in the engine control room or machinery space. If an auxiliary steering system is required, the regulations mandate that it must be mechanical and not primarily powered by an electric motor intended for other purposes. However, if an electric motor originally intended for other services is used to assist steering, and adequate protection systems are in place, the safety authority may grant an exemption from certain requirements, provided all other safety and steering standards are met.
27.SOLAS 74 – Main Requirements for Steam Boilers and Boiler Feed Systems
Each steam boiler and exhaust gas boiler must be equipped with at least two safety valves of sufficient discharge capacity. Any boiler operating on liquid fuel and intended for unattended operation must be fitted with protective safety devices. Water-tube boilers serving main turbines must have emergency high-water-level alarms. Each steam-generating plant must have at least two separate feedwater systems, including feed pumps; however, a single feed line into the boiler drum is allowed. Boilers must be equipped with systems to monitor and maintain the required feedwater quality. Any boiler essential for the ship’s safety and designed to operate at a specific water level must have at least two water level indicators.
28.SOLAS 74 requires that all steam pipes and related equipment must withstand maximum working pressures and have drainage to prevent water hammer damage.
Pipes exposed to pressures above design limits must have safety valves and pressure gauges. Each steam boiler and heat recovery generator must have at least two safety valves unless other protections exist. Boilers using liquid fuel and designed for unattended operation must have automatic safety devices to stop fuel supply if unsafe conditions occur. Inspections ensure electrical, control, and safety systems are adequate. Hydraulic tests of boilers and steam systems are mandatory before use, and steam measuring instruments must be tested annually. Boiler control panels must display start and stop instructions in the manufacturer’s language and a language understood by the crew.
29.SOLAS 74 requires compressed air systems on ships to have safeguards against overpressure in any part of the system, including water jackets or casings of compressors and coolers that might be exposed to dangerous pressure from leaks. All systems must have proper pressure relief devices. Main starting air systems for internal combustion main engines must be protected against flame or explosion backflow in the starting air pipes. Additionally, all discharge pipes from starting air compressors must lead directly to air receivers, and starting air pipes from receivers to main or auxiliary engines must be routed completely separate from compressor discharge pipes.
30. Bridge-to-Engine Room Communication (SOLAS 74)
Ships built after October 1, 1994, must have two independent means of communication between the bridge and engine room. One must be an engine telegraph with visual indication of commands and responses.
31. Minimum Crew, Working Language, and Master’s Authority (SOLAS
74)
The working language must be recorded in the ship’s log. Crew members must understand and communicate in it. All posted plans and lists must be translated if the working language differs from the flag state’s official language.
33. Emergency Power Supply (SOLAS 74)
An independent emergency power source (diesel generator or battery) must operate for at least 3 hours and support vital systems like communication, lighting, alarms, and fire pumps.
32. Equipment Control Systems (SOLAS 74)
Under SOLAS 74, Equipment Control Systems are required to ensure safe and reliable operation of ship machinery and systems. These control systems must be designed to provide effective monitoring, alarm, and automatic control functions to prevent failures and ensure prompt response to emergencies. They should include redundancy and fail-safe features to maintain control in case of component faults. Control panels and interfaces must be clearly labeled and accessible to the crew, with appropriate instructions and training provided. The systems must comply with performance and safety standards set by SOLAS to guarantee operational safety at sea
34. Engine Room Ventilation (SOLAS 74)
Category A machinery spaces must have adequate ventilation to ensure machinery operates safely at full capacity in all weather conditions.
35. Certification of Watchkeeping Engineers (STCW A-III/1)
Candidate must be 18+, meet health standards, complete 3 years of training, have practical sea service, understand safety and firefighting, and be competent in machinery operation.
36. Certification for Chief and Second Engineers (STCW A-III/2)
Chief Engineer: 36 months of sea service (12 as Second Engineer). Must complete approved education and training per STCW standards.
37. Watchkeeping Duties at Anchor, in Poor Visibility, and Coastal Waters (STCW)
Engineer must stay in the engine room, be ready for maneuvering, maintain power supply, inspect equipment, and ensure pollution prevention and emergency system readiness.
38. Taking Over Engine Room Watch (STCW A-III/4)
Candidate must be 18+, have at least 6 months of approved sea service or specific training, and be competent under supervision in engine room duties.
39. Engine Room Watchkeeping (STCW)
Engineer must monitor and record machinery conditions, respond to bridge commands, inspect systems, and ensure prompt action in case of faults or fire.
40. Management Styles Onboard (Authoritarian, Democratic, Liberal):
Authoritarian: Top-down decisions, best in emergencies. Democratic: Collaborative, suitable for responsible teams. Liberal: Minimal supervision, ideal for creative tasks. Style depends on the leader’s personality, management level, and work environment
41 Kuģakolektīvavadībasīpatnības. Līderisms un vadība: Leadership stylerefers to themanner and system of methodsa leader uses to influence subordinates. It is one of thekey factorsin ensuring theeffective operation of an organizationand thefull realization of the potentialof both individuals and the team as a whole.
Most researchers identify the followingleadership styles:
Directive (Authoritarian) Style– characterized by centralized decision-making, strict control, and one-way communication;
Democratic (Collegial) Style– emphasizes collective decision-making, open communication, and participation of subordinates;
Liberal (Laissez-faire or Anarchic) Style– minimal involvement from the leader, who delegates tasks and deadlines but refrains from active supervision.
42.Kuģa komandas darba efektivitāti noteicošie faktori: līderisms, attieksmepretdarbu, vadībasstils Leadership, work attitude, and leadership stylein maritime crews are closely linked to the influence of the“information hunger” factor:
Individuals who possess information—typically crew members inhigh-ranking formal positions(i.E., officers)—automatically gain higher informal statusorauthority.
As a result, the structure ofinformal relationshipsbecomesdistorted by formal hierarchies.
At the same time,informal leadersalso emerge within the crew based on theirpersonal qualities, and these leaders exist at variouslevels:
Withininformal micro-groups;
Withinprofessional groups(those who are most respected professionally); Across theentire crew(those who gain the sympathy and respect of the majority).
It is important to note that this phenomenon is characteristic not only ofsmall crews, but also oflarge crews.
In such settings, one of the most significant features oflarge maritime crewsbecomes evident—they combine the traits of bothlarge social groups(i.E., production communities) andsmall social groups, includingall elements of group dynamics.
43(6) Klasisko vadības stilu raksturojums (autoritārs, demokrātisks, liberāls), specifika to pielietojumā kuģa ekipāžas kopēja darbaapstākļos?
Democratic (Collegial) – decisions are made collectively, and communication occurs in both directions. This style is effective for diligent and responsible teams. Directive – characterized by a top-down approach where the leader gives orders and closely supervises. Liberal (Laissez-faire) – the leader plays a minimal role, providing only tasks and deadlines, without interfering in the process. This style is suitable for creative work.The choice of management style depends on the socio-psychological characteristics of the leader (such as age, gender, interests), the management level (top, middle, or lower), and the specific field of activity.Safety and Manning Requirements on Ships (in accordance with international maritime conventions): Contracting Governments are obligated, with respect to each of their national vessels, to comply with existing measures or adopt new ones if necessary, to ensure that all ships are adequately manned with personnel of appropriate number and qualifications, from the perspective of safeguarding human life at sea. Every ship subject to Chapter I must carry a document indicating the minimum safe manning or an equivalent certificate issued by the Administration, confirming that the crew meets the necessary minimum for compliance with the above requirements.
To ensure effective safety-related operations, each ship must establish and record in the logbook a designated working language. The company (as defined in Regulation IX/1) or the master, as appropriate, determines this working language. Every seafarer is required to understand and, where necessary, give and respond to orders and instructions in this language. If the working language is not the official language of the flag State, then all posted plans and lists must include a translation into the working language.
44. Kuģa ekipāžas locekļu psiholoģiskā stāvokļa pārvaldība ekstremālā situācijā
Stress un stresa noturīgums. The key is tochoose the appropriate behavioral strategybased on theassessment of the situation. One may adopt the approach of a personwho is not frightenedby the extreme situation; in this case, it is essential todemonstrate calmnessto the crew.Personal composure and dignitycan help reduce panic among the crew. It is important toanticipate and evaluate the psychological consequencesof one’s own actions and behavior. One must be able toassess both their own capabilities and those of others, findoptimal waysto achieve objectives and overcome the extreme situation, acteffectively under difficult and critical conditions, resolve conflicts,manage stress, applyeffective resource management, and maintaingood interpersonal and working relationshipson board.
45 Udensizspaids, dedveits un tilpība
The amount of water displaced by the submerged part of a floating ship is equal to the total mass of the ship, regardless of its size, material, or shape. Two types of displacement are distinguished:
Volumetric displacement – equal to the volume of the submerged part of the ship up to the waterline;
Mass displacement – equal to the mass of the ship.The volumetric displacement varies depending on the density of the water in which the ship is floating.Based on the ship’s loading condition, the following types of displacement are defined:
Standard displacement – a fully equipped ship with crew, but without fuel, lubricants, or fresh water in the tanks;
Normal displacement – standard displacement plus half of the above-mentioned supplies;
Full displacement – with all supplies fully loaded;
Maximum displacement – with maximum possible supplies;
Light displacement (or lightship) – without crew, ammunition, fuel, etc.
For submarines, displacement is classified into:Surfaced displacement, andSubmerged displacement, which is greater due to the mass of water taken into the main ballast tanks during submersion.For naval auxiliary and transport vessels, only the terms full displacement and light displacement are used, in the same sense as for combat ships, but taking into account the absence of weapons and ammunition. The difference between full and light displacement defines the deadweight of the vessel.
Gross Tonnage (GT) of a Vessel:Gross Tonnage (GT) is a measure of the total internal volume of a ship, including all enclosed spaces, expressed in register tons (1 register ton = 100 cubic feet or 2.83 cubic meters). It is used primarily for administrative and regulatory purposes, such as port fees and safety rules.In summary:
Displacement – mass or volume of water displaced (linked to buoyancy).
Gross tonnage – internal volume (linked to capacity and regulation).
46.Iegrimes izmaiņa, iekraujot mazu un lielu kravu
When cargo is loaded onto a vessel, there is a simultaneous change in themetacentric radius, theposition of the center of buoyancy, and thecenter of gravity, which leads to a change in themetacentric height.
47 Peldamības rezerve
Thereserve buoyancyis the volume of the watertight above-water part of the vessel, located between theload (design) waterlineand theupper continuous watertight deck, including watertightsuperstructures and deckhouses.
The reserve buoyancy determines theamount of waterthe vessel can take on in an emergency before becoming fully submerged, and therefore is one of the most important characteristics of itswatertight integrity.
Thedegree of watertight integrityincreases with therelative reserve buoyancy(i.E., the ratio of reserve buoyancy to the vessel’s calculated volumetric displacement).
48 Kuģa sākuma noturība, metacentrs, metacentriskais augstums
Ships must be designed and constructed in such a way that allstress criteriaare met according to therules and specified loading conditions.
Therighting arm curves(static stability diagrams) must beevaluated and approved by the inspection authority.
Thearea under the righting arm curvemust be at least0.055 m·radwithin the heel angle range from0° to 30°, and at least0.09 m·radwithin the range from0° to 40°or up to theangle of flooding—the angle of heel at which water begins toenter the ship in large quantitiesthrough openings in the hull, superstructures, or decks thatcannot be made watertight quickly. Small openings that cannot let large amounts of water enter arenot considered open. Therighting arm GZat a heel angle of30° or moremust beno less than 200 mm. Themaximum righting arm GZmaxmust be reached at a heel angle ofnot less than 30°. If justified, this angle may beno less than 25°. The vessel’sinitial stabilitymust ensure ametacentric height (GM)ofnot less than 150 mm.
Various factors that significantly affect the ship’s stability—such ascrosswinds acting on a large-profile vessel,ice accretion,water on deck,funnel effects,following and quartering seas—must be taken into account in the calculations. The vessel must maintainsufficient stability at all stages of the voyage, including during additional loads,icing, andchanges due to fuel consumption or cargo unloading.
If the vessel istransporting oil in bulk, the inspection authorities must ensure that the specified stability requirements aremet during all loading and ballasting operations.
49 Šķidrās kravas brīvās virsmas ietekme uz kuģa sākuma noturību
Thecalculation of the initial metacentric height adjustmentfor a vessel takes into account thefree surface moment of inertiaof liquid cargo relative to the central axis parallel to the tank, with theheel angle set at 0°, in accordance with the relevant provisions.
Therighting arm curve(static stability diagram or stress curve) must be adjusted using one of the following methods, as approved by the inspection authority:
Correction based on the actual liquid shift momentat each evaluated heel angle;
Correction based on the moment of inertiacalculated at a0° heel angle, modified for each computed angle of heel;
Correction based on the magnitude of the shift momentfor each cargo tank, taking into account the requirements of the current rules.
Thestability information of the vesselmust clearly indicate themethod usedfor correcting therighting arm curves(static stability diagrams). However, if analternative methodis described for use inmanual loading condition calculations, anydifferences in the resulting valuesmust be explained withexamples of correctionsprovided for each alternative method in the vessel’s stability information.
51 Vēja statiskā un dinamiskā iedarbība uz kuģi
It is generally accepted thatwind pressureis represented by a single resultant forcePv, which depends on thewind pressurepvand thewindage areaof the vesselAv.
The wind pressure values are taken from tables provided in theRegister Rules, depending on the category of the vessel (limited or unlimited navigation).
Thewindage areais understood as theprojected areaof the above-water part of the vessel onto thecenterline (longitudinal) planewhen the vessel is in an upright position.
Static wind pressureis the pressure that causes thedriftof the vessel, i.E., its movement in a directionperpendicular to the centerline plane, at a certain speedV.
Thecenterline plane (CLP)
is the plane that runs along the center of the ship’s width throughout its entire length.
Dynamic wind pressureoccurs when, during a sudden squall, thewind pressure force Pvis applied to the vessel almost instantly, while thewater resistance forceshave not yet had time to develop. Theinertial forces of the vesselitself resist its translational movement.
52 Kuģa nenogremdējamība, konstruktīvie un organizatoriskie pasākumi
Constructive watertight integrityis ensured by dividing the ship’s hull into a number of compartments using watertight bulkheads, decks, and platforms. Watertight integrity is also maintained through the installation of drainage systems, sounding pipes, watertight closures, and similar equipment on board.
Preventive organizational and technical measures are equally important for ensuring watertight integrity. The most significant among them include: proper organization of the crew for damage control; systematic and thorough training in watertight integrity procedures; and maintenance of watertight closures (such as doors, hatches, manholes, and portholes) in good working order.
In an emergency, the crew combats water ingress and works to restore the ship’s stability and alignment (by reducing heel and trim). It is particularly important to maintain sufficient positive stability after an accident.
Thus, ensuring the watertight integrity of a merchant vessel involves a wide range of both theoretical and practical issues, the resolution of which presents considerable challenges.
Depending on the nature of the flooding, flooded compartments are classified into three categories:
First-category compartment
Completely flooded;
Second-category compartment
Partially flooded (with a free surface of liquid), but not in communication with seawater;
Third-category compartment
Partially flooded and in communication with seawater through a breach in the outer hull.