International Involvement in the Spanish Civil War
Aid to Republican Spain
The Republic initially sought help from democratic powers such as France, the UK, and the USA. However, they received only negative responses:
- In the United Kingdom, there were opposing views. The Popular Front government was considered too revolutionary, and there was little desire to confront Germany and Italy over Spain. Thus, the UK supported a policy of non-intervention, influencing France to do the same.
- In France, ruled by the Popular Front, initial support for non-intervention stemmed from a desire to maintain unity with the British.
- The United States maintained its traditional isolationist policy, defending neutrality.
Consequently, the Republic relied on limited assistance from Mexico and, significantly, the Soviet Union. The USSR, under Stalin’s rule, provided military aid, though it was demanding. Stalin required the deposit of Spain’s gold reserves (about 550 tons, equivalent to approximately $570 million at the time) as collateral. Material often arrived late, after offensives or battles were lost. It is estimated that the USSR sent around 2,000 aircraft, 5,000 tanks, and 3,500 guns, along with ammunition, spare parts, and other military vehicles. Additionally, between 500 and 1,000 Russian soldiers served as instructors in Spain. Crucially, the Soviet Union facilitated the formation of the International Brigades in autumn 1936, recruiting volunteers worldwide to fight alongside the government. These volunteers, mainly young communists (80%), socialists, or liberals from diverse backgrounds, aimed to save Spain from fascism, with the motto: “Spain will be the tomb of fascism.” Their headquarters was in Albacete. They were organized into six brigades, with battalions often grouped by nationality. Their intervention helped halt the rebel army at Madrid’s gates in autumn 1936. In late 1938, with the Republic nearing defeat, the government ordered their withdrawal. An estimated 18,000 Brigades members died in the war.
Aid for Nationalist Spain
The Nationalist faction immediately sought help from Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. These powers responded decisively, initially facilitating the military airlift from Morocco to Spain. Their military aid was more timely and unconditional than that received by the Republic from the USSR. Franco received war materials promptly, with fewer payment demands due to the Nationalists’ lack of cash reserves. The pro-Franco side acquired German and Italian war materials on credit or through raw material exchanges (iron, copper, lead, mercury). Military aid received by the Francoist side included:
- Italy: Sent 75,000 men of the CTV (Corpo di Truppe Volontarie), 1,000 aircraft, 2,000 tanks, 4,000 guns, submarines, ammunition, spare parts, and other vehicles and small arms.
- Germany: Sent the Condor Legion, with periodic rotations, 1,500 tanks, 1,000 aircraft, 2,000 guns, and other military equipment.
- Other Countries: Sent volunteer corps. Portugal sent the Viriato, and Ireland sent the Legion of St. Patrick, led by O’Duffy, consisting of several thousand Irishmen. In both cases, these volunteers aimed to defend Catholicism.
The Nationalist side also gradually gained diplomatic support. In November 1936, Germany and Italy recognized Franco’s Spain. Japan, Portugal, and the Vatican followed in 1937. Throughout 1938, the UK sent unofficial representatives to the Franco government. In February 1939, the United Kingdom and France recognized Franco’s government as legitimate, given the apparent Republican defeat. The United States followed suit on April 1, 1939, after the war had ended.