Intellectual and Religious Shifts in 18th Century America
The Enlightenment and the Great Awakening
John Locke and the Foundations of Knowledge
An important thinker was John Locke, who wrote the Essay Concerning Human Understanding. His philosophy challenged traditional views:
- It is incorrect to think that colors are innate in a creature; you are not born knowing colors, you actually learn colors. Therefore, knowledge is not innate.
- Knowledge comes from experience (from life, experiments, and science).
- We can change society for the better by pooling our experiences. With knowledge, society could progress. Enlightenment thinkers believed in a better society because of the use of reasoning. By improving individually, we improve society.
Core Principles of Enlightenment Thought
- Nature: Nature works through a set of laws that someone should try to find. Science uses rationality to find these laws, leading to the rejection of magic.
- History: Historians should make an effort to differentiate myths and facts. They sought to teach history that was objective and based on proven facts.
- Deism: There was a supreme force that organized the Universe, but they rejected any religious institution, such as churches. They believed churches would be against the freedom of individuals. Individuals had to follow their own rationalities.
Contrasting Beliefs: Puritanism vs. Enlightenment
Comparing these ideas to the Puritan ones reveals huge differences:
| Puritan Beliefs | Enlightenment Ideas |
|---|---|
| Election and Determinism | Equality |
| Hierarchy and Authority | Freedom of the individual |
| God was central (Theocentric) | Man was central (Anthropocentric) |
| Knowledge came from the Bible | Knowledge came from reason and experience |
| Church and religious institutions were vital | Deism and individual practice of religion |
| Belief in magic (witches) | Belief in science |
Culture, Progress, and Political Impact
Enlightenment thinkers placed great importance on knowledge, but also on culture. Clubs and coffee houses were used to discuss philosophy and books, leading to a development of intellectual life.
Knowledge became closer to people, moving beyond the confines of universities. For example, Benjamin Franklin started many libraries. Since people did not have to work as many hours, there was time to read, think, and talk.
The use of reasoning and ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity led to a better society. These ideologies formed the basis of the French Revolution and the American Independence.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau: The Social Contract
Rousseau believed that man was only happy in his natural state (in the wild) but was unhappy when he was part of society. He argued that men are inherently good but are corrupted by society and its institutions. These institutions encourage ambition (creating inequality), leading to corruption and then unhappiness.
Rousseau rejected the idea of men returning to nature, as society would not survive. The solution, therefore, was finding a way to prevent society from corrupting us. This could be achieved by a common effort of each individual to help and protect everybody in society.
This concept defined the Social Contract: working for the well-being of the entire society by renouncing individual freedom to embrace communal freedom. People must accept what the majority decides, even if it goes against their own beliefs. Everything must be decided by elections.
By accepting this social contract, they were creating democracy. Democracy gives power to the people to decide all issues and who will represent them. Representatives must fight for the people, not for their own power; they would not be figures of authority, but servants of the people. This was an idealistic view of democracy.
Benjamin Franklin’s Role
The ideas of the Enlightenment were followed by Benjamin Franklin. His views were central to the development of American citizenship. He set up libraries, hospitals, and other centers to create a better society.
Report: Benjamin Franklin’s Autobiography
Franklin was sometimes seen as too extreme with his ideas of morality. He was also contradictory to the Enlightenment principles (because if people followed his strict moral code, they wouldn’t be truly free) and contradictory to himself.
The Great Awakening (18th Century)
The Great Awakening was based on the revival of faith in the colonies for several reasons:
- Secularization of Society: Society had become less religious because people doubted religious institutions. Economy and trade had become more important.
- Secularization of Religion: Because of the Half-Way Covenant, there was less blind faith in God, as people who had not been chosen were still part of the community.
- Fear of Falling Away: People started to feel that they were falling apart from God’s path. The consequence of this fear was the revival of faith.
Some religious orators traveled around the colonies to convince people to return to religion. An example was George Whitefield, a preacher who had previously been a dramatic actor, making him highly effective at giving speeches.
Jonathan Edwards and the Use of Fear
Another key figure was Jonathan Edwards. He believed that society was becoming corrupt and materialistic. To solve this, people should embrace religion again. His speeches were based on fear, aiming to appeal to people’s emotions to bring them back to God. He emphasized the existence of sin, and the necessity of converting again to religion to achieve salvation and avoid going to hell.
Analysis of Edwards’ Sermon
Report: Jonathan Edwards, Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God
This sermon appeals to repentance for having forgotten about God. Edwards urges people to repent for their behavior, reminding them that only God can decide whether they go to hell and when they will die. With powerful and graphic images, he describes:
- That you are worse than people who are already in hell.
- That God holds you over like a spider and wants to throw you into hell.
- That God will crush you under his feet without mercy and also your blood is…