Industrialization, Society, and Agriculture in 19th-Century Spain

Posted on Dec 15, 2024 in Geography

Industrialization and Transportation

Reasons for Industrial Backwardness

The main causes of this delay were the geography of the country, which hampered communications. Also influencing the situation were the shortage of raw materials and energy sources, and slow population growth. A fourth factor was the lack of capital. The result was dependence on foreign capital, which financed railway construction. The state also played a negative role, with the continued issuance of debt, attracting capital, and a protectionist policy that favored immobility and a lack of technological changes in the fields and factories. Finally, we must mention the loss of the American colonies, which had provided privileged markets and raw materials for Spanish industry.

The Textile Industry

Zone: Catalan: cotton sector.
Nonwoven preindustrial workmanship.
1830s: Bonaplata Industry (steam engine).
Protectionist policy that protects the Catalan textile industry.
a) Conservative: tariffs. b) Progressive: free traders: Espartero, or two, progressive administration.

The Steel Industry

1. Focus Andalusia (Malaga-Fuengirola).

In 1826, the first blast furnace was established in Marbella. It used charcoal and iron from Ojén. Factories were also established in Malaga. Andalusian hegemony lasted about 30 years, but in the second half of the century, it went into decline.

2. Focus Asturias.

As of mid-century, steel production moved to Asturias, as it had the advantage of significant coal deposits. In the 1840s, a furnace was installed in Mieres, initially using coking coal (first with English and then French capital). In the 1850s, it also extended to Langreo, where the Hard Metal Company and the National Asturian Company were established.

3. Focus Basque.

In 1871, mining companies with English capital were established in Biscay. From 1876, cheaper Welsh coking coal arrived in Bilbao in exchange for iron exports. Between 1879 and 1882, three major steel mills were established (San Francisco, La Vizcaya, and Altos Hornos). In 1902, Altos Hornos de Vizcaya was created (a merger of the others), marking the peak of the Basque industry. The protectionist move since 1887 allowed it to control the entire national market.

The Exploitation of Mining

Spain had many of the minerals used since the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century: lead, iron, mercury, copper, and zinc. However, it was poorly endowed with coal, which was scarce and of poor quality. Until mid-century, mining belonged to the Crown, then to the state. Since 1868, foreign companies received long concessions that allowed them to modernize procurement procedures but also deplete resources. Spanish minerals were exported just before the Mining Act of 1868. The main resources of Spain were:

Iron in Malaga, Vizcaya, and Santander.
Copper and pyrite in Huelva.
Lead in Cartagena.
Zinc in Asturias.

Coal was the main energy source and was also used in steelmaking. Mining areas in Spain were in Asturias, León, Palencia, and Teruel. Asturian coal had to compete with British coal that reached the Basque coast. At the end of the century, a protective tariff was attempted.

The Railway Network

The first time that the establishment of railroads was regulated was in 1844. The moderate government made concessions to Spanish private financial groups related to the party, largely devoted to speculating on the stock exchange and not building anything. During the moderate decade, only three road sections were built (Barcelona-Mataró, Madrid-Aranjuez, and Gijón-Langreo).

General Railways Act: This was the most important policy measure that involved progressive economic modernization. This law set a full radial network from Madrid, also served by a different gauge from the European one. It also set ticket prices and tariffs, and the state would give subsidies to build the railway. The progressive government was willing to give every facility, supporting it in several ways: the Law on Banks and credit unions to facilitate funding.

The result was a high rate of road construction, mainly because it gave freedom of establishment to foreign companies for imports. This high pace of construction lasted until the crisis of 1866. The crisis brought down railroad shares in the stock market and halted construction. After 1876, construction resumed at a slower pace.

Social and Demographic Changes

Social Changes

a) Group Leaders: The transition from the old stratified society to a fully capitalist class society. In it, property was the distinctive element. The old nobility lost their estate privileges, but the liberal revolution turned their estates into private property, and the confiscation allowed them to expand their holdings.

The generals and the church hierarchy contributed to sustaining the ruling elite. The gentry was formed by several sectors: landowners who formed their heritage through confiscation, traders, shipowners, bankers and financiers, factory owners, and senior professionals.

b) Middle Class: The middle classes were fairly heterogeneous. In general, they included small landowners, peasants who owned their land, middle-ranking army officers, professionals (doctors, lawyers, teachers), small traders and entrepreneurs, shop owners, etc. Their ideology tended to be very conservative, suspicious of changes, and fearful of falling into proletarianization and the loss of status that would have led to their impoverishment. Only a small minority was distinguished by its politically active, critical, and demanding nature.

Demographic Changes

The Spanish population grew throughout the 19th century. In particular, the mortality rate was very high; at the end of the century, it still hovered at 28%, a considerable number. There are several reasons for this. First, the continuing series of wars that ravaged the country. Second, infectious diseases. The third cause was successive subsistence crises caused by poor harvests. In the final decades of the century, the migratory flow increased significantly. Internally, it resulted in a migration process from rural to urban areas, a rural exodus that explains the strong growth of suburban cities like Madrid, and in some cases, it was promoted by the industrial boom, in others by the increased demand for services. In parallel, there was a sharp increase in emigration abroad to America.

Agriculture and Land Sales

Agrarian Changes Produced by the Liberal Revolution

The liberal revolution brought a series of legal changes that transformed the country into a capitalist agriculture in Spain. The first was the final elimination of the link between the land, the second was the abolition of the judicial system, and the third was the adoption of freedom of enclosure of land, crop commercialization, pricing, and putting the free market in agriculture. Fourth, the payment of tithes to the church by peasants was eliminated. But the most important measure was the confiscation of land and councils.

The Seizure of Mendizábal

Background:

Enlightened by Campomanes and Jovellanos (King Charles III)
Small confiscation of Godoy (charitable church property)
During the War of Independence, the courts decided
Liberal Triennium

Timeline: In February 1836, the decree of confiscation of Church property, called the Mendizábal confiscation, was published.

Objectives:

Addressing the public debt
Funds are needed for the Carlist War
Convert land into private property
Creating a true social mass (among the buyers) to support liberalism

Land Affected:

Land belonging to the regular clergy (mostly rural land)
After 1841 (Espartero), it also affected the lands of the regular clergy (Bishops: cities)

Method:

Confiscation of land
Auction (large lots)
Payment was allowed for nominal debt

Consequences (results):

Only part of the debt was paid off
The large size of the lots of land prevented farmers from acquiring property; the lower classes did not benefit.
Much of the property passed to a new leadership that allied itself with the old nobility.

The Confiscation of Madoz

Chronology: Bienio Progresista, 1855

Land:

Vacant land (the lands of the municipalities).
To a lesser extent, church grounds.

Implications:

A much faster process, and more debt was written off because only cash was accepted.
Maintain ownership structure: the estates.
The most affected were the humbler classes.

Evolution of Agriculture in the 19th Century

a) Effects of the Liberal Measures:

The new owners continued the old ways.
Throughout the century, production increased because more acreage was cultivated, but productivity did not increase.
The decline in livestock, mainly sheep herds, was due to the dissolution of the privileges of the Mesta and the competition from cotton fabrics.

b) Reasons for Agricultural Backwardness:

The agrarian situation changed from the Spanish Old Regime, but even still, agrarian crises occurred as a result of crop failure or fluctuations in the world market, which collapsed or shot up the price of agricultural products, keeping the masses at the limit of livelihood and under the threat of hunger. In other European countries, the agricultural takeoff was the immediate predecessor of industrialization. In Spain, there was no Agrarian Revolution for the following reasons:

Structural reasons: physical (soil and water) or historical/inherited (property ownership of land, smallholdings, and large estates in the north).
Social: a) lack of initiative of the landowning owners. b) the custom of living off the land, which undermined productivity. c) lack of capital for smallholders. d) the new owners increased the pressure on the peasantry (rents).
Economics: a) lack of investment and technical improvements. b) national market weakness: weak demand, farming methods kept farmers in miserable conditions that provoked social tensions. c) the national market was not very important due to the poor infrastructure network (roads and highways). The situation would improve from mid-century with the construction of railway lines.

c) Types of Farming and Agricultural Models:

Since the advent of the Liberals, the domestic market was articulating, allowing specialization among the different agricultural areas. There were three models:

Northern Model (north of the Cantabrian): there was a marked improvement due to the introduction of new crops, corn, and potatoes.
Interior Model: Prevalence of extensive farming, the rainfed Mediterranean trilogy (grapes, olives, and cereals). Since mid-century, there was strong growth in grain production due to the needs of the population increase, making this area an exporter to other populations.
Mediterranean Model: This region saw the expansion of vineyards and fruit crops (orange) for export purposes.

d) Development of Agriculture during the Restoration:

There are two different periods:

1st period of expansion (from 1870-1890):

Cereals: increased production of wheat, barley, and maize.
Vine: grew throughout the century, but especially in the 1880s, mainly benefiting Catalonia and La Rioja.
Olive grove: growth occurred due to the clearing of new land.
Citrus: the industry became more developed and modernized. In Murcia, Alicante, and Valencia, irrigation systems were improved and expanded, and imported fertilizers were introduced. Exports tripled.

2nd. Finisecular Crisis: Europeans were owners of a new type of crisis; it was no longer a subsistence crisis, but now they faced competition from other countries. A world market had been established, and agricultural products from young countries invaded foreign markets. Although transportation costs were higher, agricultural yields favored lower prices. Spanish farmers demanded protectionist measures. On the other hand, France, from 1892, was recovering from phylloxera, while Spain would now take the hit. The cereal crisis coincided with that of the vine and beet. Olives and citrus continued to grow.