Industrialization, Imperialism, World War I and the Russian Revolution

Posted on Jan 30, 2026 in History

Unit 5 — Industrialization: Britain and Spain

British Industrialization Characteristics

Abundance of coal.
Significant population growth, which helped develop a domestic market.
Urban growth and a massive rural exodus.
The bourgeoisie played a very important role in society.
A vast colonial empire.
Advanced political system: the monarchy’s power was limited.
Relatively flat terrain, facilitating an extensive transport network (canals and roads).
Important development of the financial sector (banks) and capitalism.
Liberalism in both politics and the economy.
Increase in agricultural production.

Spanish Industrialization Characteristics

Lack of high-quality coal and expensive extraction.
Moderate population growth and a weak domestic market.
Late industrialization: the bourgeoisie was less prevalent and had less political power.
Spain lost most of its American empire at the beginning of the 19th century.
Absolutism persisted until 1833; afterwards there were very limited liberal governments.
Limited expansion of the financial sector; capitalism was constrained by internal customs and multiple currencies.
After 1833, there were only modest advances: a weak liberal state and limited economic development.
Agricultural expansion was achieved through the clearing of new land.

Unit 6 — Causes of Imperial Expansion and Industrial Capitalism

Why Was There Imperial Expansion?

Economic Interests

Industrialized European countries searched for new markets to sell surplus products. They also wanted raw materials (coal, iron, cotton, rubber, etc.) and colonial products (sugar, chocolate, tea, etc.) at the best possible prices.

A Growing Population

The economic changes of the 19th century led to a huge rise in Europe’s population.
This demographic growth caused overpopulation, which encouraged emigration to colonies. Migration provided a solution for the metropole (the occupying state) because it helped avoid social problems such as unemployment and strikes.

Rivalry Between the Powers

Industrial powers wanted to expand areas of influence to increase political power and hinder competitors.
European countries sought to increase political power by occupying territories abroad.

Racist and Nationalistic Ideologies

The root causes of imperialism include racist and nationalistic ideas.
Philosophers, scientists, writers and politicians often convinced much of the population of the legitimacy of these ideas.
Many Europeans came to believe they had a duty to spread their culture and “civilization” among peoples they considered inferior.

The Triumph of Industrial Capitalism

The Second Industrial Revolution

In the final third of the 19th century, new energy sources emerged and were developed.
Electricity had many applications in industry, communication systems, entertainment and lighting.
Oil extraction began in the United States, and the internal combustion engine led to oil’s use as fuel for cars.
New industrial sectors emerged: the chemical industry, the aluminium industry, and the automotive and aviation industries.
The great technological leap of the late 19th century resulted from the union between scientific research and industry.

A New Way of Organizing Production

Frederick W. Taylor revolutionized production methods when he developed scientific management, or Taylorism.
These new work methods were based on assembly lines, where each worker performed a specific task.
Mass production began in the United States. The Ford Motor Company was one of the first to use an assembly line in its car plant (Fordism), leading to standardized mass production, lower production costs and wider consumption.
Economies of scale became a defining feature of large modern industry.

Trade Domination and International Finance

Europe, and later the United States, dominated the world financially. Their wealth allowed them to invest capital across the world: they lent money to states and invested in land, industries and transport. These investments provided banks and individuals with huge profits.

Europe Conquers the World

The age of imperialism structured world culture, politics and economy around the domination of some countries over others.

Exploration and Conquest

In the mid-19th century much of Africa, Asia and the oceans were unknown to Europeans.
After the exploration phase, conquest was often quick and relatively easy. Europeans exploited internal rivalries between tribes and ethnic groups to pit them against each other and recruit troops.

Clashes Between Colonial Powers

Imperialism of the 19th century was characterized by frequent conflicts between powers.
Disputes between imperialist interests were inevitable (for example, the Fashoda incident).
The Boer Wars were fought between Great Britain and the Dutch (Boer) settlers who had inhabited southern Africa since the 17th century.
All colonial powers wanted access to China’s market because of its large population. The Opium Wars (1839–1842 and 1856–1860) forced China to open up to Western trade.

Unit 7 — The Road to World War I

During the first decade of the 20th century, increased tensions between the major European powers led to a period of “armed peace” that eventually resulted in the First World War.

Colonial Conflicts

The Berlin Conference (1885) tried to establish rules for the colonization of Africa by European empires. The German Empire, one of the last to join the colonial race, reopened conflicts between European countries.

Rivalry Between Powers and Nationalism

European powers became increasingly nationalistic. The promotion of national identity and values caused a general climate of mistrust.
Some European peoples had nationalist aspirations and wanted independence, while others defended their status as traditional empires.
Strong rivalry existed between the British and German Empires over economic control of Europe and its trade routes.

The Balkan Wars

As the Ottoman Empire collapsed, the Austro-Hungarian Empire planned to gain power in the Balkans. Serbia and Russia also sought increased influence. Austria-Hungary, fearing a general Slavic uprising under its control, sought German support.

Military Alliances and the Arms Race

France, fearing German military strength and expansion, allied with Russia and improved relations with Britain; this led to the Triple Entente.
Mistrust caused an arms race. Countries spent vast sums manufacturing weapons, building warships, and strengthening their armies in preparation for potential war.
The assassination of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914 triggered the First World War, but the deeper causes had been developing for decades.

The Phases of the War

The Outbreak of War

On 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, was assassinated in Sarajevo.
Austria-Hungary accused Serbia of involvement and declared war on 28 July 1914. Russia mobilized to protect Serbia; Germany declared war on Russia and France; Great Britain declared war on Germany and Austria-Hungary after the German army invaded Belgium. Italy initially remained neutral.

The Military Movements

The war began on the Western Front when the German army attacked France through Belgium and Luxembourg.
By early September 1914 the Germans were close to Paris, but French and British forces stopped the advance at the Battle of the Marne.

Trench Warfare

After the Battle of the Marne, the Western Front became static. Trenches were built from Switzerland to the North Sea.
The Ottoman Empire entered the war in late 1914, followed by Italy and Bulgaria in 1915 and Romania in 1916. The Germans launched a major offensive in 1916 but were stopped at Verdun. The Battle of the Somme followed as the Allies attacked German lines.

1917–1918: The Last Phases of the War

In 1917 Russia signed the Brest-Litovsk Treaty with Germany after the Bolshevik Revolution and withdrew from the war.
The United States entered the war in 1917.
In 1918 the Allies defeated Austria-Hungary on the Eastern Front; the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires surrendered and called for armistices. Germany was defeated on the Western Front at the Second Battle of the Marne. Revolts in the German army and navy and workers’ demonstrations increased pressure on the government; as a result the Kaiser abdicated and Germany surrendered. An armistice was signed on 11 November 1918, bringing the war to an end.

Why Was There a Revolution in Russia?

The war affected all participating countries, but it had profound consequences for the Russian Empire. It led to an unprecedented revolution in 1917, which transformed Russia’s economic, political and social systems.

An Autocratic Empire

In the early 20th century the Tsars ruled a vast empire with an absolute monarchy. A loyal bureaucracy and a powerful army controlled the empire, and the Orthodox Church was a major ideological pillar of the regime.

Feudal Agriculture and Dependent Industry

The economy and social structures in the Russian Empire were among the most backward in Europe. Agriculture was the main activity, and land was controlled by a powerful and wealthy aristocracy.
Feudal relations persisted in many areas.
In some regions (Moscow, St. Petersburg, the Urals, etc.) industrialization had begun. A large industrial proletariat emerged, working in factories with very low wages.

Opposition to the Regime

Opposition first developed among peasants; Marxist ideas spread among industrial workers. In 1898 the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party was founded and later led by Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (Lenin).

The Crisis of the First World War

Russia entered the First World War in 1914 but its army and arms industry were inefficient and could not meet demand.
As resources were devoted to war, famine and shortages appeared in cities.

The Russian Revolution

The February Revolution of 1917 — The Fall of Tsarism

On 23 February 1917 there was a large demonstration in Petrograd (present-day St. Petersburg), followed by general strikes and riots. Soldiers in some garrisons mutinied.
A provisional government formed and promised constituent elections to make Russia a parliamentary democracy.
Popular discontent grew, and the Soviets (workers’ and soldiers’ councils), who wanted withdrawal from the war, began to demand the dismissal of the provisional government.

The October Revolution — The Bolsheviks Take Power

Most Soviets supported the Bolsheviks. Lenin and the Bolsheviks sought to establish a government of workers’ and peasants’ Soviets and to sign a peace treaty with Germany. They advocated distributing land among peasants, giving workers control of factories, nationalizing the banks, and recognizing the nationalities of the former Russian Empire.

The Civil War and the Formation of the USSR

The Civil War lasted about three years and caused great misery: food shortages and high casualties. In 1921 the Red Army prevailed. The conflict contributed to the hardening of the Soviet regime and the eventual formation of the USSR.

Europe at the End of the War

An Economic and Demographic Disaster

The war caused the deaths of around ten million soldiers and many civilian casualties due to malnutrition and disease.
Economically, the war ended Europe’s unchallenged hegemony. European countries were heavily in debt and had to issue government bonds and take loans, particularly from the United States.

The Organization of Peace

In January 1919 a conference was held in Paris. The Treaty of Versailles and other treaties broke up Europe’s empires and drew new borders. US President Woodrow Wilson presented a manifesto (Wilson’s Fourteen Points) based on his vision for peace and his desire not to seek revenge, aiming to guarantee peace and cooperation between states. However, the project ultimately failed in many respects.

New Problems and New Conflicts

The Germans considered the Treaty of Versailles humiliating, which increased nationalism and a desire for revenge.
Italy’s frustration at not receiving territories it had been promised also increased nationalism.
The Bolshevik Revolution encouraged revolutionary forces elsewhere in Europe.