Industrialization, Immigration & the British Empire: A Historical Overview
Industrialization and Immigration in the US
In less than fifty years, the United States transformed from a rural republic into an urban state. The nation’s economic progress, fueled by iron, steam, and electrical power, was accelerated by thousands of inventions like the telephone and typewriter. However, this progress came at a cost. The industrial revolution in the US, much like in Britain, was characterized by harsh working and living conditions and unfair monopolies, only on an even larger scale.
Continuous and unrestricted immigration from Europe played a significant role in this rapid industrialization. Immigrants, eager for work, were willing to accept low wages and poor conditions. This influx of labor led to increased competition for jobs, particularly impacting African Americans who had migrated from the South in search of better opportunities. They faced violent racial discrimination, especially from newly arrived white immigrants, and were forced into segregated communities.
The era saw the rise of powerful industrialists like Rockefeller (oil) and Carnegie (steel) who built vast empires through mergers and takeovers, creating virtual monopolies in their respective sectors. These “captains of industry” wielded immense economic and political power, becoming representative figures of the age. While their enterprises enabled the US to compete on the global stage, legislative reforms became necessary to regulate the power of these trusts and improve the overall living and working conditions for the general population.
The British Empire
America
In 1750, Britain controlled thirteen colonies along the eastern coast of North America. However, growing discontent among colonists over taxation without representation in the British Parliament led to armed conflict. The colonists declared independence in 1776 and, with the support of France and Spain, defeated the British. Britain formally acknowledged American independence in 1783.
Canada
In 1759, General James Wolfe captured the French fortress of Quebec, paving the way for the establishment of a British colony. By 1865, Canada’s population had grown to 3 million, with its prosperity largely based on cattle and wheat production. In 1867, Britain granted Canada greater autonomy, creating the Dominion of Canada with its capital in Ottawa.
Africa
Between 1880 and 1900, European powers carved up Africa, claiming control over 80% of the continent. Britain engaged in the Boer War to establish complete dominance over South Africa.
India
In 1750, the British East India Company operated trading posts in cities like Madras and Bombay. Utilizing its private army, the company expanded British territorial control, conquering Bengal in 1757. The British government subsequently took over and further expanded its influence. Despite the Indian Mutiny (an uprising in 1857), Britain ruled most of India by 1900.
Australia and New Zealand
Captain Cook landed in Australia in 1770, and it began serving as a penal colony in 1788. Sheep farming thrived, attracting increased emigration. The discovery of gold in 1851 further fueled growth. New Zealand became a British colony in 1840, with its economy, particularly farming, flourishing after the advent of refrigeration enabled exports to Europe.
Reasons for Imperialism
- Trade: The Industrial Revolution created a demand for both raw materials and luxury goods from abroad. Colonies provided access to these resources and served as markets for manufactured goods.
- Strategic Expansion: In the 18th century, trading companies used private armies to seize land. In the 19th century, governments directly annexed territories to prevent rivals from gaining control and to secure strategically important locations.
- Public Opinion: Initially, the British public showed little interest in empire building. Imperialism gained widespread popularity in Britain only around 1870.
Results of Imperialism
The British Empire did offer trade advantages. Imports from colonies exceeded exports to them, providing a steady flow of raw materials for British industries and exotic products for consumers. However, there were also economic drawbacks, such as competition for British farmers.
Colonies experienced both benefits and disadvantages under British rule. The British introduced infrastructure like roads, canals, railways, schools, and hospitals. They also brought their legal system, medical knowledge, and postal service. Some colonies became centers of Christianity, and many adopted British laws, language, and customs.
However, the costs of colonialism were often high. British rule frequently disregarded local customs, cultures, and religions. Native populations faced exploitation, land seizures, and even mass killings.
Slavery and the Triangular Trade
During the 18th century, Britain played a major role in the transatlantic slave trade. Ships departed from Liverpool and Bristol carrying manufactured goods to West Africa. These goods were exchanged for enslaved Africans who had been captured from their villages. The enslaved people were then chained and packed into ships for the brutal journey across the Atlantic to the West Indies and America. Many perished during the voyage due to the appalling conditions. Those who survived were sold at auctions to plantation owners.
The ships returned to Britain laden with tobacco, sugar, rum, and cotton from the Americas and the Caribbean. This “triangular trade” generated immense wealth for merchants and port cities. Many merchants used their wealth to gain influence in Parliament, ensuring the protection of their interests.
While many Britons profited from the slave trade, others vehemently opposed it. In 1787, William Wilberforce, a Member of Parliament, founded the Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade. After years of campaigning, Parliament passed the Abolition of the Slave Trade Act in 1807, making it illegal for British ships to transport enslaved people. However, the Act did not free those already enslaved on plantations in British colonies. Emancipation for enslaved people in British colonies was finally achieved in 1833.