Industrial Revolution: Causes, Impact, and the Rise of Labor
The Industrial Revolution: Origins and Impact
The Industrial Revolution refers to the set of profound changes that occurred in the product development process and the consequent series of social and economic transformations. It marked a pivotal shift from agrarian and handicraft economies to industrial and machine-manufacturing ones.
Causes and Consequences in England
The revolution originated in England due to several interconnected factors:
Key Factors Driving the Revolution
- Parliamentary Monarchy: England was unique in having a non-absolute parliamentary monarchy. This political system fostered a non-privileged nobility with an entrepreneurial mindset, which, combined with available capital, was invested by the industrial bourgeoisie.
- Population Growth: A decrease in wars and plagues, improved diet, increased agricultural production, and medical advances led to a larger population. This meant more consumers for products and a greater labor force available for industry, particularly from rural areas.
- Agricultural Improvements: Innovations like the enclosure of fallow lands and improved farming techniques boosted agricultural output, freeing up labor for factories.
- Liberal Ideology: A prevailing liberal economic philosophy encouraged free trade and innovation.
Technological Advancements and Key Industries
The textile sector was the primary driving force of the Industrial Revolution. The growing population led to a high demand for clothing, which was met by abundant cotton and metallurgical machinery. The main technical improvement was the widespread use of coal, as its heat capacity was significantly higher than that of charcoal, fueling steam engines and new industrial processes.
Industrialization in Spain: A Delayed Process
Reasons for Spain’s Lagging Development
From 1830 onwards, the Industrial Revolution spread from England to other parts of Europe. However, Spain experienced a significantly delayed industrialization compared to other territories. The primary reasons for this lag included:
- Lack of Prior Agricultural Revolution: Spain did not undergo a significant agricultural revolution beforehand, leading to backward cultivation techniques and low productivity. Most products were not sold but intended for domestic consumption, hindering market development.
- Economic Ruin from Napoleonic Wars: The economy was devastated by the war against Napoleon, which led to the destruction of workshops and manufacturing centers. The war also made consumption impossible for a large part of the population.
- Political Instability: The return of Ferdinand VII brought the banishment of liberal ideas and the implementation of absolutism, stifling economic progress.
- Insufficient Infrastructure: Spain had an insufficient and poorly planned transport network, hindering the movement of goods and raw materials.
The Second Industrial Revolution (1870-1914)
Between 1870 and 1914, the world witnessed the Second Industrial Revolution, a period characterized by important technical innovations, the emergence of new energy sources (like electricity and petroleum), and modern types of industry (e.g., chemical, steel, automotive). Having adapted better to these new factors, countries like Germany and the United States emerged as major global powers, surpassing Britain in industrial output.
The Rise of the Labor Movement
The widespread poverty and exploitation faced by workers during industrialization led them to become aware of their shared class struggles. This awareness sparked a series of rebellions and organized movements:
Early Worker Resistance and Organization
- Early Worker Resistance (Luddism): Initially, workers acted in isolation and disorganization, often destroying machines and manufacturing equipment, believing them to be the cause of their misery. This movement was known as Luddism.
- Emergence of Trade Unions: In 1824, the British government legalized trade unions. These local unions, formed by workers of the same trade, used strikes to achieve better wages, reduced working hours, and eventually demanded universal suffrage.
Emergence of Socialist Ideologies
Following these early movements, various socialist currents emerged. These ideologies aspired to promote a more just and egalitarian society. The main currents were Marxism and Anarchism.
Marxism: Critique of Capitalism
Marxism offered a critical analysis of the capitalist system. According to Karl Marx, the capitalist system is inherently unfair because a minority owns the means of production and appropriates the benefits generated by the labor of the wage-earning majority. He believed that the state, as an instrument of the ruling class, had to be overthrown to liberate workers and establish a classless society.
Anarchism: Bakunin’s Philosophy
Anarchism, championed by figures like Mikhail Bakunin, argued that Rousseau was mistaken in his belief that man was good by nature and society corrupted him. Bakunin believed that human beings are inherently free and that society, particularly the state and its instruments (like law and police), restricts this freedom. Therefore, anarchists advocated for the destruction of these instruments to achieve true human liberation.