Indus Valley Civilization: Harappan Cities, Architecture & Economy

Posted on Feb 3, 2026 in Architecture

Indus Valley Civilization – Detailed 16-Mark Answer

Introduction

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also known as the Harappan Civilization, flourished from 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE along the Indus River and its tributaries in present-day India and Pakistan. It is one of the world’s earliest urban civilizations, known for its scientific city planning, advanced drainage systems, standardized bricks, and organized socio-economic life.

1. Geographical Extent

  • Spread over 1.3 million sq. km — larger than Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia.
  • Major sites: Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, Lothal, Kalibangan, Banawali, Rakhigarhi.
  • Western spread: present-day Pakistan (Sindh, Punjab).
  • Eastern spread: Uttar Pradesh, Haryana.
  • Southern spread: Gujarat (including Surkotada, Lothal).

Mature Harappan period (2600–1900 BCE) represents the peak of cultural achievements.

2. Town Planning (Most Important for Architecture Students)

The IVC is world-famous for scientific and grid-based planning:

(a) Grid Iron Pattern

  • Streets intersected at right angles (N–S and E–W).
  • Broad main roads (up to 10 m) and narrower lanes.
  • Cities divided into rectangular blocks.

(b) Division of Cities

1. Citadel (Upper Town)
  • Elevated on a mud-brick platform.
  • Contained important structures: Granary, Great Bath, Assembly Hall, Warehouses.
  • Housed the ruling/administrative class.
2. Lower Town
  • Residential area.
  • Houses arranged along streets, often built around central courtyards.

3. Architecture and Building Materials

(a) Bricks

  • Standardized burnt bricks: ratio 1:2:4.
  • Uniformity indicates central regulation.

(b) Houses

  • Mostly two-storied, with private wells and bathrooms.
  • Houses had courtyards, staircases, and proper ventilation.
  • Doorways often opened towards side lanes for privacy.

(c) Drainage System

The most advanced feature:

  • Covered drains made of baked bricks.
  • Slope-controlled channels to ensure water flow.
  • Inspection chambers at intervals.
  • Every house was connected to the street drain.
  • Shows high civic sense and engineering knowledge.

4. Major Architectural Features at Sites

Mohenjo-daro

  • Great Bath: Waterproof brick structure with bitumen lining and flights of steps — one of the earliest known public water tanks.
  • Granary: Large brick platforms.
  • Assembly Hall and exemplary drainage systems.

Harappa

  • Granaries in series of rooms.
  • Fortified citadel mounds.
  • Evidence of crafts specialization.

Dholavira (Gujarat)

  • Unique stone architecture.
  • Water reservoirs and step-wells.
  • City divided into Citadel, Middle Town, Lower Town.
  • Signboards with the longest examples of Harappan script.

Lothal

  • Famous dockyard — evidence of maritime trade.
  • Bead-making factory.

Kalibangan

  • Fire altars and ploughed-field remains.

5. Economy

(a) Agriculture

  • Crops: wheat, barley, peas, sesame, mustard.
  • Earliest evidence of cotton cultivation.
  • Well-planned irrigation and flood management.

(b) Trade

  • Internal and long-distance external trade.
  • Trade with Mesopotamia (referred to as Meluhha).
  • Use of standardized weights and measures (cubical stone weights).

(c) Crafts

  • Pottery, bead-making, shell work, and metalwork.
  • Bronze technology with lost-wax casting.

6. Society and Culture

(a) Social Organization

  • Urban society with occupational specialization.
  • Class divisions: administrators, merchants, craftsmen, farmers.

(b) Religion

  • No evidence of grand temples.
  • Evidence suggests:
    • Worship of a Mother Goddess.
    • Proto-Shiva/Pashupati seal.
    • Sacred animals, especially the bull.
    • Use of amulets and terracotta figurines.

(c) Script

  • Undeciphered pictographic script, written from right to left.

(d) Art

  • Excellent craftsmanship across media.
  • Notable objects:
    • Dancing Girl (bronze).
    • Bearded Priest-King (stone).
    • Terracotta toys and seals depicting animals.

7. Decline of the Civilization

Multiple theories explain the decline:

  • Ecological changes.
  • River shifting (drying of the Saraswati).
  • Floods and environmental stress.
  • Decline in trade.
  • Possible epidemics. No single cause is certain; a gradual decline is most likely.

Conclusion

The Indus Valley Civilization represents one of the world’s most advanced urban cultures. Its achievements in town planning, architecture, drainage, craftsmanship, and socio-economic organization demonstrate a high level of scientific and administrative understanding. The Harappan legacy continues to influence modern Indian architecture and city planning.