Individual and Society: Exploring the Dynamics of Socialization and Culture
1. The Individual and Society
1.1 The Study of Individual-Society Relationship
Two perspectives exist:
- Classical: Prioritizes the individual over nature with a twofold rationale:
- Material order: Society fulfills individual needs.
- Personal order: Society fosters higher faculties.
- Actual: Prioritizes society over the individual, explaining human society through social behaviors.
- Society as a product of evolution.
- The necessity of learning societal culture.
- Psychological mechanisms in interaction.
1.2 Socialization and Biological Evolution
Two theories explain this relationship:
- Creationism:
- Hierarchical reality with man at the center.
- Intelligence distinguishes humans from animals.
- Humans are inherently social beings.
- Evolutionism:
- Species emerge through a struggle for survival.
- Humans evolved from primates.
- Shared human-ape traits: forelimb configuration, brain function, visual perception, vocal variation, group experience, prolonged childhood.
- Distinct human traits: bipedalism, differentiated hands and feet, increased cranial capacity, symbolic language.
1.3 Socialization and Human Evolution: Meaning
Adaptation is crucial for survival. Human adaptation involves anatomical and physiological changes, freeing upper extremities, Homo habilis adaptation, replacing instincts with intelligence, and the emergence of symbolic thinking. A complex society is based on articulate speech, self-awareness, cultural organization, extended childhood, and dietary changes.
1.4 Socialization
Humans are adaptable beings with prolonged childhood dependence. Socialization, the lifelong interaction between individual and society, can be categorized by need (primary and secondary) and content (objective and subjective).
1.4.1 Socialization Process
- Aging: Integrity vs. despair
- Maturity: Generativity vs. self-absorption
- Young adult: Intimacy vs. isolation
- Adolescence: Identity vs. role confusion
- School age: Industry vs. inferiority
- Play age: Initiative vs. guilt
- Early childhood: Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
- Infancy: Trust vs. mistrust
1.5 Objective Socialization
1.5.1 Objective Socialization: Internalizing Societal Elements
Objective socialization involves internalizing societal elements like skills, statuses, roles, and behavioral guidelines. Its objectives include learning social behavior, constructing reality, and controlling behavior. Agents involved are society (institutions), individuals (educators), and groups (family, school, peers). Two types exist: normal (conforming) and deviant (non-conforming).
1.5.2 Normal and Deviant Socialization
Social norms reflect values. They can be customs (basic, sanctioned rules) or usages (desirable, non-imposed standards). Formal norms are laws, while informal norms are unwritten. Normal socialization is adapting to group norms. Deviant socialization is the failure to adhere to these conventions.
1.6 Subjective Socialization: The Learner
1.6.1 Freud: The Oedipus Complex
The Oedipus complex, occurring during the transition from the second to third phase of personality development, signifies the humanization of biological drives. It involves the shift from animalistic to human, from undifferentiated to differentiated, from raw desire to normalized desire, and the awareness of self as a sexual being.
1.6.2 Socialization and Personality
Personality is the individual’s predisposition to act. It comprises external factors (social roles, statuses, values) and internal factors (volitional, capacities, sensory-emotive). Personality has a dual basis: biological (physiological constitution) and social (development within society).
1.7 Development of Society
Psychological constraints on development include evolution and generality. Evolution refers to the changes in a child’s personality from ages zero to six. Generality refers to the increasing social interaction of children, particularly after the first year.
1.8 Objective Socialization: Culture
1.8.1 Definitions of Culture
- Mechanistic: Socially transmitted habits and symbols.
- Functionalist: Assets and habits that satisfy human needs.
- Universalist: Uniformity in words, actions, and artifacts.
- Synthetic: Interrelated institutions operating within a total system.
1.8.2 Elements of Culture
- Beliefs: Conceptions about reality.
- Values: Conceptions of the desirable.
- Rules: Prescriptions for behavior.
- Symbols: Means of communication.
1.8.3 Characteristics of Culture
- All-inclusive: Encompasses all elements of social life.
- Omnimoda: Specific to human societies.
- Acquired: Learned and transmitted.
- Symbolic: Based on symbols.
- Legislation: Patterns of social behavior.
- Changeling: Reflects societal changes.
1.8.4 Unity and Diversity of Cultures
Culture exhibits both unity (due to the shared human condition) and diversity (due to varied customs). Universal culture refers to elements present in all ethnic groups, such as language.
1.8.5 Theories of Culture
Classical theories focus on beliefs, rituals, norms, values, and ideology. Modern theories examine culture’s role in society and the individual.
1.8.6 Functionalist Theory (T. Parsons)
This theory views culture as the link between individual needs and societal requirements. It identifies four system needs: adaptation, goal attainment, integration, and latency.
1.9 Socialization in School
School transmits culture through scientific knowledge, ideological content, instrumental subjects, and multiculturalism. It fosters civic education, occupational training, and social differentiation.
2. Social Groups
2.1 Clusters and Social Groups
Social groups are people sharing a common element. Types include aggregates (people in the same place), categories (individuals classified similarly), and social groups (shared identity, interaction, structure, goals, and norms).
2.2 Types of Social Groups
Groups can be primary (direct, personal relationships) or secondary (instrumental relationships). Reference groups provide standards for evaluation, while membership groups are those with which individuals identify.
2.3 Formal Organizations
Formal organizations are governed by rules and regulations with specific goals. Examples include hospitals, banks, schools, administrative agencies, police, and prisons.
2.4 Bureaucracy (Max Weber)
Bureaucracy is a hierarchical organization governed by impersonal laws and rules. Weber identified three types of authority: traditional, legal, and charismatic.
2.5 The Student as a Social Group
School groups are individuals with similar psychosocial characteristics. Cognitive groups are based on age and cognitive abilities. Social groups can be categorized by age (children, adolescents, youth).
2.6 Teachers as a Social Group
Teachers are individuals engaged in the same activity with a particular social position. Education can be considered a profession or a semi-profession.
2.7 Theories of Social Stratification
2.7.1 Dahrendorf’s Multidimensional Theory
This theory posits that social conflict arises from the differential distribution of authority.
2.8 Race, Ethnicity, Minority Groups
Race is a social category based on perceived biological differences. Ethnicity is based on cultural heritage. Minority groups are disadvantaged and held in low esteem due to physical or cultural traits.
2.9 Models of Intergroup Relations
Models include amalgamation, assimilation, pluralism, exploitation, and conflict.
2.10 Prejudice and Discrimination
Prejudice is a distorted perception of a group. Discrimination is behavior that denies equal rights and opportunities.
2.11 Interaction
Interaction is the reciprocal influence between people. Types include cooperation, accommodation, assimilation, conflict, obstruction, and competition.
2.12 Interaction in the Classroom
Classroom interaction involves various relationships, including teacher-student and student-student interactions.