Individual and Social Nature of Humans: A Cultural Overview
Individual Human Nature and Culture
The Cultural Animal
Speaking of human nature is complex. We can start by examining its biological constitution. In doing so, we discover an intrinsic need to interact with and be open to culture. Human beings are animals whose peculiar biological nature opens up to the cultural order; therefore, humans are cultural animals.
Culture as Adaptation
Culture introduces effective adaptation mechanisms, such as symbolic language and technology. The world of culture, created by human capacity for invention and anticipation, diminishes the uncertainty caused by unforeseen events. Thus, human nature has a biological and a cultural dimension that interact, favoring changes that may influence the biological evolution of humans.
The Concept of the Individual
An individual is any complete being belonging to a species, whether animal or vegetable. However, we often use this term synonymously with “human being.” This usage arises from the recent idea that each human is a unique and unrepeatable person. The modern age is characterized by the rights and freedoms individuals have gained. It is understood that every human today is a subject of rights that should not be ignored or violated.
Individualism and Its Limits
The new concept of individual freedom is developing into what’s known as the theory of possessive individualism. This theory posits that every human being is the sole owner of their person and abilities, owing nothing to society. It asserts that an individual is free to the extent that they own themselves, their capabilities, and the product thereof, without relying on the will of others.
Society is seen as a group of individual owners who interact through the exchange of accumulated goods and services. This theory implies that we all seek our particular benefit in any social relationship, making exchanges functional. However, no human is entirely debt-free to society and can be considered independent of it.
From this perspective, we often speak of altruistic individualism, as Kant claims. Because humans are endowed with an “unsociable sociability,” it’s necessary to find a balance between individualism and collectivism, avoiding the annulment of individuality.
The Genesis of Human Social Behavior
Humans as Social Beings by Nature
Aristotle assumes that humans are political animals, gregarious by nature, needing society and the culture it brings. He understood humans as beings full of gaps and needs that can only be fulfilled within society. Living in society is an essential human existence, and only someone who is not good can be dispensed with. Aristotle adds that only humans can communicate in society and have a language capable of expressing themselves. The human being is yoked to a nature that has a moral dimension, which is the basis and condition of society.
Living in Society as a Non-Essential Construct
For those who disagree that humans are social by nature, society is an artificial construct that emerged as a lesser evil for precarious coexistence, but not inevitable. Society is the result of a pact or contract between humans. Representatives of this theory include:
- Thomas Hobbes: From a pessimistic view of human nature, Hobbes expressed the idea that “man is a wolf to man.” He supposed that human beings, moved by their egoism, are in constant struggle with others. The only natural impulse is self-preservation and the satisfaction of needs.
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Starting from the hypothesis of a solitary natural man moved by natural piety or a benevolent impulse toward others, Rousseau believed that life in society is possible and positive for human development when structured as an egalitarian and not very numerous community. Private property and selfishness threaten the development of peaceful coexistence, making the sociable human being do evil.
Contributions of Cultural Anthropology
Cultural anthropology studies the lifestyles of different human groups and their evolution, which necessarily involves analyzing culture, its constructs, and expressions. Social behavior is understood as a symbolic response to conflicts of a cultural nature. Cultural anthropology interprets these expressions and attempts to understand their meaning. It also tries to reproduce the cultural evolution experienced in their way of living in reality and coexisting with others.
The First Societies
In the Upper Paleolithic, the first human groups were egalitarian societies based on hunting and gathering. These societies were dominated by an economy of exchange and reciprocity. Food was obtained by all and consumed communally. The leader was a person of experience who mediated among their peers or advised on decision-making. Their nomadic lifestyle forced them to live in huts, caves, or shelters, where they left art forms expressing their magical beliefs about life and nature.