Indian Nationalism: Perspectives and Freedom Movements

Posted on Feb 27, 2026 in Social sciences

The Nationalist Approach to Indian Nationalism

Critically analyse the Nationalist approach to the study of Nationalism in India.

Introduction

Nationalism in India arose in the 19th and 20th centuries against British rule. It was not just a political reaction but an awareness against the exploitation of the people. Nationalism showed the way to unite Indian society and inspire social reform. Later, several approaches developed for the study of nationalism, among which the Imperialist Approach and the Nationalist Approach were prominent.

Meaning of Nationalism: The feeling among the people of a nation to unite and struggle for their political freedom, unity, and self-reliance. In India, this feeling developed against the exploitation of British rule and became the foundation of the freedom movement.

Imperialist Approach to Indian Nationalism

The Imperialist approach is the view of British historians and rulers, which considers nationalism as a “gift” of British rule. According to them, Indian nationalism was the result of Western education and British reforms, not of Indian consciousness. This approach describes India as a “non-nation,” which was united only because of the British.

  • 1. Considering India as a non-nation: Imperialist historians like James Mill and John Strachey argued that before the 18th century, India was not a nation but a collection of different castes, languages, religions, and regions. According to them, British rule gave India the form of a nation by providing uniform administration, law, education systems, and means of communication.
  • 2. Elite-centric view: The Imperialist view said that nationalism existed only among the educated, English-speaking middle class. Lord Dufferin called the Indian National Congress “a handful of intellectuals” away from the problems and feelings of common people.
  • 3. Downplaying the Revolt of 1857: This view called the 1857 revolt a “Sepoy Mutiny,” saying it was only soldiers’ discontent. They refused to consider it an organized national movement and completely denied its nationalist spirit.
  • 4. Negative portrayal of leaders: Imperialist historians called leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak “agitators” and described Gandhi’s policies as weak. They argued that such leaders misused British reforms and that their activities were impractical and created instability in society.

Nationalist Approach to Indian Nationalism

The nationalist view is the perspective of Indian historians and leaders who believe that nationalism in India arose from the Indians’ own thinking and desire for independence. According to them, nationalism in India developed naturally against the exploitation, injustice, and oppression of foreign rule, and not because of British reforms.

  • 1. Emphasis on Unity in Ancient India: Nationalist historians like R.C. Majumdar and K.P. Jayaswal argued that national feeling existed in India through its cultural and political traditions. They believed that the spirit of freedom, unity, and self-reliance was present even before British rule, which was further strengthened by colonial oppression.
  • 2. Focus on Exploitation under British Rule: The Nationalist approach sees British rule not as beneficial but as exploitative. According to it, the British weakened India’s economic, social, and cultural structure. Agrarian crises, poverty, and industrial decline created discontent among the people, which ultimately became the basis of the nationalist movement.
  • 3. Viewing the Freedom Struggle as a Mass Movement: In this approach, the Revolt of 1857 is seen not merely as a Sepoy Mutiny but as the first organized national movement. Farmers, soldiers, artisans, and common people all participated in it. Nationalist historians regard it as the beginning of India’s freedom struggle.
  • 4. Positive Role of Leaders and Movements: The Nationalist approach considers the role of leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, and Subhas Chandra Bose as decisive. Under their leadership, the movements became mass-based with contributions from Satyagraha, Non-Cooperation, Swadeshi, and armed revolution.

Criticism of the Nationalist Approach

The Nationalist approach increased pride and patriotism among Indians. It showed how strong India’s ancient unity, culture, and desire for freedom were. However, it also had some weaknesses. At times, this approach became too emotional and ignored certain positive administrative and technical contributions of British rule. The unity and national feeling of ancient India were sometimes exaggerated, while differences of caste, religion, and language also existed. Not all historians agree that 1857 was fully the “First War of Independence.” Moreover, the role of peasants, workers, and common people was not always given enough importance. Therefore, this approach was inspiring but not completely balanced.

Conclusion

Thus, it can be said that both approaches view the rise of nationalism in India differently. The Imperialist approach considers nationalism as a gift of British rule, while the Nationalist approach sees it as the result of India’s own strength and consciousness. The truth is that Indian nationalism emerged from a blend of both: the challenges of foreign rule along with internal unity, transforming it into the nationalist movement for independence.

Socio-Religious Movements in the 19th Century

Discuss the contribution of socio-religious movements in India’s freedom struggle in the 19th century. Or: Critically analyse the reformist movement during the 19th century.

Introduction

In the 19th century, India was under British rule, where economic exploitation, social evils, and religious orthodoxy had weakened society. During this time, socio-religious movements awakened the people, raised their voices against social evils, and gave strength to the freedom struggle. Reformist efforts like the Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj promoted education, unity, and progress in society, though their limited reach and impact also left some shortcomings.

Major Socio-Religious Reform Movements

  • 1. Brahmo Samaj: In 1828, Raja Ram Mohan Roy founded the Brahmo Samaj. Its aim was to end idol worship, caste discrimination, the practice of Sati, and superstitions. He promoted monotheism, women’s education, and widow remarriage. This movement introduced a new way of thinking in society based on reason and rational ideas.
  • 2. Prarthana Samaj: In 1867, Dr. Atmaram Pandurang founded it in Maharashtra. Its main work was to remove caste discrimination, encourage widow remarriage, and oppose child marriage and the dowry system. This movement was inspired by the Brahmo Samaj and considered education as the greatest weapon for social reform.
  • 3. Arya Samaj: In 1875, Swami Dayanand Saraswati founded the Arya Samaj. He gave the slogan “Back to the Vedas” and opposed idol worship, casteism, and ritualism. He promoted women’s education, equality, and the Shuddhi Movement. This movement awakened self-pride and awareness in Hindu society.
  • 4. Young Bengal Movement: In the 1820s, under the leadership of Henry Vivian Derozio, the students of Hindu College in Calcutta started this movement. These youths supported reason, science, independent thinking, and social reform. They opposed superstitions and old social evils. Although its impact remained limited, it laid the foundation of modern thinking in Bengal.
  • 5. Satyashodhak Samaj: In 1873, Jyotirao Phule founded this society. Its objective was to end caste discrimination and protect the rights of the lower classes and women. Phule worked for women’s education, widow remarriage, and against child marriage. This movement became a symbol of the struggle for dignity and equality of the backward classes.

Contribution to the Freedom Struggle

  • 1. Challenge to caste hierarchy: The socio-religious movements opposed casteism and the practice of social inequality, creating a sense of equality in society. This brought different sections closer to each other and strengthened the social unity necessary for the freedom struggle.
  • 2. Women Empowerment: These movements promoted women’s education, widow remarriage, and rights, while opposing social evils like Sati and child marriage. When women became educated and aware, they also actively participated in the freedom movement, increasing mass participation.
  • 3. Spread of Education: The reform movements spread modern education and scientific thinking. With the establishment of schools and colleges, political awareness grew among the people and new leadership emerged. This educated class later played an important role in planning and organizing the freedom struggle.
  • 4. Religious and Social Unity: These movements tried to bring Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, and Christians together by spreading a message of respect and tolerance. This religious unity proved useful in weakening the British policy of “divide and rule.”
  • 5. Development of National Consciousness: The reform movements taught people to take pride in their culture, history, and traditions. They broke the belief that foreign rule was superior. This increased self-respect and strengthened the desire to free the country.

Criticism of Reformist Movements

  • 1. Limited to the Elite class: Movements like the Brahmo Samaj and Young Bengal were mostly limited to cities and educated people. Their ideas did not reach the large rural population.
  • 2. Communal Tensions: The Arya Samaj’s “Shuddhi Movement” was for religious reform, but it increased tensions between Hindu and Muslim communities, which benefited the British policy of “Divide and Rule.”
  • 3. Conflict of Ideas: Some movements favored adopting Western education, while others like the Arya Samaj opposed Western influence. This conflict reduced the strength of a united reform front.
  • 4. Limited Impact of Laws: Laws were made against Sati and child marriage, but implementing them in conservative rural societies was difficult. As a result, these practices continued in many places for a long time.
  • 5. Neglect of Economic Issues: According to historian Bipan Chandra, the reformist movements focused on social issues but did not give enough importance to economic exploitation, such as high taxes and the plight of farmers.

Swadeshi and Radical Nationalist Movements

Discuss the social base, programs, and political methods of Swadeshi and radical nationalists.

Introduction

The harsh policies and economic exploitation of British rule had increased the sufferings of the Indian people. Foreign goods damaged the country’s industries and deprived people of their rights. This injustice awakened a strong desire for freedom, leading to the Swadeshi and Extremist movements, which gave new strength to the freedom struggle.

Nationalists who promoted the boycott of foreign goods and encouraged indigenous culture were called Swadeshi nationalists. In 1905, they launched the Swadeshi movement in protest against the Partition of Bengal. Extremist nationalists sought to promote their nation’s interests by asserting superiority and control. This was a militant form of nationalism.

Social Base

Swadeshi Nationalists

  • 1. Educated middle class: The main base was the English-educated middle class, including lawyers, teachers, and journalists. Leadership mostly came from urban upper castes.
  • 2. Urban upper class: Leadership came from influential people in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras who had the economic resources to provide direction to the movement.

Extremist Nationalists

  • 1. Young student class: Leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, and Bipin Chandra Pal (Lal-Bal-Pal) attracted young people who supported swift action and sacrifice.
  • 2. Educated but unemployed youth: Frustrated youth from various regions joined the extremists, translating their anger into energy for the movement.

Programs of the Movements

Swadeshi Movement

  • 1. Use of indigenous goods: The movement adopted the program of boycotting foreign cloth. People were encouraged to use items made by Indian artisans to strengthen domestic industries.
  • 2. National educational institutions: To counter British policy, institutions like Bengal National College were opened to impart patriotic and vocational education.
  • 3. Revival of handicrafts: Traditional village industries were revived to achieve economic independence.
  • 4. Meetings and propaganda: Public meetings, plays, and songs were used to spread the message of nationalism.

Extremist Nationalist Movement

  • 1. Goal of complete independence: Extremists made Swarajya (complete independence) their main goal instead of partial reforms.
  • 2. National education and self-reliance: They established training centers to prepare organized leadership for the struggle.
  • 3. Strict boycott: Extremists enforced a complete boycott of foreign goods through collective social pressure.
  • 4. Secret revolutionary organizations: They formed organizations like the Anushilan Samiti and Yugantar to plan direct actions against British officials.

Political Methods

Swadeshi Movement

  • 1. Constitutional means: Swadeshi leaders used petitions, resolutions, and speeches to demand reforms while working within a legal framework.
  • 2. Economic pressure: Burning cotton cloth and boycotting shops selling imported goods became important political weapons.

Extremist Nationalist Movement

  • 1. Direct action and non-cooperation: Extremists violated British laws, refused to pay taxes, and organized strikes. They rejected peaceful petitions in favor of direct struggle.
  • 2. Revolutionary literature: Newspapers like Kesari spread anti-British messages and called for sacrifice, evoking a fighting spirit among the youth.

The Non-Cooperation Movement: Goals and Impact

Examine the goals, achievements, and weaknesses of the Non-Cooperation movement. What was its impact on the Indian national movement?

Introduction

After the First World War, economic crises and social problems deeply affected India. Prices rose, taxes became heavy, and famine brought misery. In this context, Mahatma Gandhi adopted the policy of non-violence and Satyagraha, mobilizing the common people to launch the Non-Cooperation Movement.

Objectives of the Movement

  • 1. Attaining Swaraj: Launched on 1 August 1920, the primary goal was to secure India’s independence and establish self-rule.
  • 2. Promotion of Swadeshi and Boycott: It aimed to establish economic self-reliance by boycotting British goods, schools, and courts.
  • 3. Protest against Jallianwala Bagh: Another objective was to oppose the injustice of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre in Punjab.
  • 4. National Education: The movement sought to promote education based on national values by establishing independent schools and colleges.

Achievements of the Movement

  • 1. National Awareness: The movement transformed the freedom struggle into a mass movement. Millions resigned from government jobs and adopted Khadi.
  • 2. Expansion to Rural Areas: For the first time, farmers, laborers, and artisans participated in large numbers, increasing political awareness in rural India.
  • 3. National Institutions: Institutions like Kashi Vidyapith and Jamia Millia Islamia were established to provide education based on Indian culture.
  • 4. Rise of New Leaders: The movement saw the emergence of leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose.
  • 5. Global Example of Non-Violence: It proved that large-scale political change was possible through peaceful means, attracting international sympathy.

Weaknesses of the Movement

  • 1. Chauri Chaura Incident: In 1922, a crowd set a police station on fire in Chauri Chaura. Following this violence, Gandhi called off the movement.
  • 2. Economic Issues: The movement failed to provide a strong solution to the specific economic problems of farmers, such as land reform.
  • 3. Regional Limitations: The movement was stronger in urban areas, while its reach remained weak in some rural and northeastern regions.
  • 4. Drop in Morale: The abrupt withdrawal created disappointment among the masses and temporarily weakened the enthusiasm of activists.

Impact on the National Movement

  • 1. Mass Base: The movement took the struggle beyond elite meetings to the villages, ensuring widespread public participation.
  • 2. New Strategies: Strategies like Satyagraha and boycott gave the movement moral strength and paved the way for the Civil Disobedience and Quit India movements.
  • 3. Hindu-Muslim Unity: By aligning with the Khilafat Movement, it brought Hindus and Muslims onto a common platform against colonial rule.
  • 4. Political Awakening Among Women: Women participated in processions and staged sit-ins, marking a new phase of women’s leadership in the national struggle.