Indian Constitutional Principles and Governance Systems

Posted on Jan 16, 2026 in Political Sciences

Q2. Philosophical Principles and Granville Austin

The Indian Constitution is a philosophical and transformative document reflecting the ideals of the national movement and aiming to establish political, social, and economic democracy. Its philosophical foundations combine Western political thought with Indian traditions:

• Liberalism: Reflected in the Fundamental Rights (Articles 14–21), which guarantee equality, liberty, and protection of life and personal freedom.
• Socialism: Finds expression in the Directive Principles of State Policy (Articles 36–51), which seek to establish a welfare state by reducing socio-economic inequalities and ensuring social justice.
• Secularism: In the Indian context, this means equal respect for all religions, guaranteed under Articles 25–28, rather than a strict separation of religion and state.
• Gandhian Philosophy: Influences the Constitution through its emphasis on decentralization, village self-government, moral values, and self-reliance, reflected in Panchayati Raj (Article 40) and Fundamental Duties.

Constitutional scholar Granville Austin described the Indian Constitution as a “seamless web” based on three interrelated strands:

1. Social Revolution: Aims to transform society by abolishing caste discrimination and inequality through provisions like Article 17 and reservations.
2. Democratic Institutions: Including parliamentary democracy, universal adult franchise, and an independent judiciary.
3. National Unity and Integrity: Ensured through a strong Centre, single citizenship, and emergency provisions.

Together, these principles give the Constitution its unique character as a democratic and socially transformative document.

Q3. Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles Harmony

The Indian Constitution ensures harmony between individual liberty and collective welfare through Fundamental Rights (Part III) and Directive Principles of State Policy (Part IV). Fundamental Rights guarantee essential civil and political freedoms such as equality before the law (Article 14), freedoms under Article 19, and the right to life and personal liberty (Article 21), protecting individuals from arbitrary state action.

Directive Principles, though non-justiciable, guide the state in promoting social and economic justice by ensuring adequate livelihood, equal pay for equal work, public welfare, and the reduction of inequalities. Initially, conflicts arose between the two, as seen in the Champakam Dorairajan case, where Fundamental Rights were given primacy. However, judicial interpretation later evolved to stress balance and harmony.

In the Kesavananda Bharati case (1973), the Supreme Court held that the balance between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles forms part of the basic structure of the Constitution, while the Minerva Mills case (1980) reaffirmed that both are complementary and not contradictory. An important example of harmony is the Right to Education (Article 21A), which combines an individual right with a social obligation. Thus, the Constitution harmonizes freedom with welfare to achieve social democracy.

Q4. Centre–State Relations and Cooperative Federalism

India follows a quasi-federal system with a strong Centre to maintain unity while accommodating regional diversity. The Constitution divides powers between the Union and the States through the Seventh Schedule, which includes the Union List, State List, and Concurrent List.

• Legislative Powers: Distributed accordingly, with Parliament having supremacy in matters of national importance, while states legislate on regional issues.
• Executive Powers: Largely follow legislative powers, though the Centre can intervene during constitutional breakdowns under Articles 352 and 356.
• Financial Powers: Tilted in favor of the Centre, which controls major sources of revenue, while states depend on grants and recommendations of the Finance Commission.

Despite this central dominance, modern governance in India emphasizes cooperative federalism, where the Centre and states work together through institutions such as the GST Council, NITI Aayog, and Inter-State Council. Cooperative federalism promotes consultation, coordination, and shared responsibility. Thus, Centre–State relations in India combine constitutional centralization with cooperative mechanisms to ensure effective governance.

Q5. Local Governance and Women’s Empowerment

The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts (1992) marked a turning point in Indian democracy by giving constitutional status to local self-government institutions in rural and urban areas. The 73rd Amendment introduced the three-tier Panchayati Raj system at village, intermediate, and district levels, while the 74th Amendment strengthened Urban Local Bodies such as municipalities and municipal corporations.

Key features of these amendments include:

• Regular elections every five years and fixed tenure of local bodies.
• Establishment of State Election Commissions and State Finance Commissions.
• Devolution of powers, functions, and finances to local institutions through the Eleventh and Twelfth Schedules.
• 33% reservation for women, including seats for women belonging to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, as well as leadership positions such as Sarpanch and Mayor.

This reform has played a crucial role in enhancing women’s political participation, enabling women to enter public life, gain decision-making experience, and raise issues related to health, education, sanitation, and welfare at the grassroots level. It has also contributed to women’s social empowerment by challenging patriarchal norms and increasing their visibility in governance. Thus, the 73rd and 74th Amendments strengthened democracy from below and promoted inclusive and participatory governance.

Q6. Union Legislature: Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha

The Union Legislature of India consists of the President, the Lok Sabha, and the Rajya Sabha, reflecting the parliamentary form of government adopted by the Constitution.

• Lok Sabha (House of the People): Represents the citizens of India and is composed of members directly elected through Universal Adult Franchise. It enjoys greater powers, especially in financial matters, as Money Bills can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha, and the Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to it. The Lok Sabha also plays a decisive role in law-making and can remove the government through a vote of no confidence.
• Rajya Sabha (Council of States): A permanent body representing the states and union territories, with one-third of its members retiring every two years. While it has limited powers over money bills, it plays an important role in revising legislation, providing continuity, and protecting federal interests.

Seats in the Lok Sabha are allocated among states and union territories mainly on the basis of population, ensuring proportional representation, though constitutional provisions have frozen redistribution to maintain balance. Together, the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha ensure democratic representation, legislative scrutiny, and federal balance in India’s parliamentary system.

Q7. Powers of the Prime Minister and the President

India follows a parliamentary system of government, under which a clear distinction exists between the nominal and real executive.

The President is the constitutional or nominal head of the state and symbolizes the unity and continuity of the nation. Although the President formally appoints the Prime Minister, Council of Ministers, Governors, and judges, and summons Parliament, these powers are exercised largely on the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers under Article 74. The President’s role is therefore mainly ceremonial, except in limited situations such as discretion during government formation or reconsideration of advice.

In contrast, the Prime Minister is the real executive authority and the most powerful political figure in the system. As the head of the Council of Ministers, the Prime Minister determines government policy, allocates ministerial portfolios, coordinates administration, and leads the government in Parliament. The Prime Minister also represents India at national and international levels and plays a key role in decision-making. Thus, while the President occupies a dignified constitutional position, real executive power lies with the Prime Minister, ensuring democratic accountability to Parliament.

Q8. Evolution of the Indian Party System

India has a multi-party system, shaped by its vast social, cultural, linguistic, and regional diversity. The evolution of this system can be categorized into distinct phases:

• Congress Dominance: In the early years after independence, the Indian National Congress enjoyed overwhelming electoral success.
• Coalition Politics: From the late 1980s, a phase of political fragmentation saw the rise of regional parties and alliances at the Centre.
• BJP Dominance: Since 2014, Indian politics has entered a phase marked by strong central leadership and electoral success at the national level.

The 2024 General Elections continued this trend, with national parties playing a decisive role in government formation, while regional parties remained influential in several states and in shaping coalition politics. Regional parties articulate state-specific demands related to language, culture, development, and federal autonomy, thereby strengthening federalism. The coexistence of national and regional parties ensures representation of both national interests and regional aspirations. Thus, India’s party system reflects democratic pluralism and accommodates political diversity.

Q9. Social and Environmental Movements in India

Social movements are organized collective efforts by people aimed at bringing about social, political, or economic change by challenging injustice, inequality, and exploitation. In India, social movements have played a significant role in addressing issues such as caste discrimination, gender inequality, environmental degradation, and displacement.

Environmental movements, in particular, have highlighted the adverse effects of unregulated development on nature and local communities:

• Chipko Movement: Emerging in Uttarakhand as a grassroots protest against deforestation, villagers (especially women) embraced trees to prevent their cutting, emphasizing conservation and sustainable forest use.
• Narmada Bachao Andolan: Focused on the issues of large dams, displacement of tribal communities, and environmental destruction, demanding rehabilitation, environmental justice, and participatory development.

These movements raised public awareness, influenced environmental policies, and encouraged judicial intervention in environmental matters. Overall, environmental movements in India have contributed to social change by promoting ecological consciousness, democratic participation, and sustainable development.