Imperialism, WWI Causes, and Global Conflict Stages
The Roots of Imperialism and Colonial Organization
Causes of Colonialism
- Economic: Europe needed to sell surplus goods, seeking new markets. They also sought raw materials at the lowest possible price and aimed to invest surplus capital in other regions, utilizing cheap labor for higher profits.
- Demographic: European population growth led to overpopulation, resulting in difficulties finding work and increasing social tensions. Colonial policies encouraged migration to other lands.
- Political: The Great Powers engaged in military and political competition to control geographic areas of economic or strategic interest.
- Ideological: Europeans promoted the concept of a “civilizing mission,” believing themselves to be culturally and technologically superior. This ideology often led to racism, considering the white man superior to other races.
Colonial Organization Types
- Colonies of Exploitation: The mother country focused solely on economic exploitation. These colonies lacked self-government, and Europeans enforced a policy of direct occupation and control over the land.
- Settlement Colonies: Territories where white populations migrated to settle permanently. The metropolis granted them some autonomy in internal government (e.g., the Dominions recognized by the British Empire).
- Protectorates: Territories that maintained their existing state organization, local government, and administrative structure, but were subject to European occupation and control.
Key Events and Powers
The Berlin Conference (1885) was held to resolve clashes of interest among rivals and formally divide Africa among the imperialist powers.
The major imperial powers included the British Empire, French Empire, the United States, and Japan.
World War I (1914–1918): Causes and Conflict Stages
Underlying Causes of WWI
- Colonial Rivalry: Intense tensions between competing empires threatened to unleash a major war.
- Nationalist Fervor: Heightened nationalism, particularly between Germany and France following the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War.
- The Balkan Conflict: This region of Europe was a major hotbed of tension since the mid-nineteenth century.
- Arms Race and Alliances: Unrest among the Great Powers fueled an arms race. Powers developed complex military alliances:
- Triple Alliance (1882): Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.
- Triple Entente (1907): France, Russia, and Great Britain.
The Outbreak of War
On June 28, 1914, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire was assassinated in Sarajevo. Austria subsequently declared war on Serbia. Russia intervened to protect its ally, Serbia. Germany then declared war on Russia and France. Within a week, numerous countries had declared war, escalating the conflict.
Stages of the War
- War of Movement (1914): The Germans attacked France but were reorganized and stopped by French and British forces. On the Eastern Front, the Germans advanced rapidly until the Russians reacted.
- Trench Warfare (1915–1917): After the initial movements stalled, fronts stabilized. On the Western Front, trenches stretched from Switzerland to the North Sea, beginning a brutal phase of attrition. In 1916, the Germans launched a major offensive to break the French front in the Battle of Verdun.
- The End of the War (1918): In 1918, on the Eastern Front, British, French, and Italians defeated Austria and its allies. In the West, the Germans were defeated, leading to riots within their army and navy. The armistice was signed on November 11, 1918.
The War in the Rear (Home Front)
New national armies recruited all military-age males. Competing nations converted their industries to wartime production (weapons manufacturing) and replaced male labor with female labor.